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A  SHORT   SURVEY  OF   THE   LITERATURE 
OF  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIi^VAL  JUDAISM 


A  Short  Survey  of  the 
Literature  of  Rabbinical 
and    Mediaeval    Judaism 


BY 

W.  O.  E.  OESTERLEY,  M.A.,  D.D. 

AND 

G.  H.  BOX,  M.A.,  D.D. 


LONDON: 
SOCIETY    FOR    PROMOTING 
CHRISTIAN     KNOWLEDGE 

NEW     YORK  :       THE      MACMILLAN     COMPANY 
1920 


printed  in  great  britain  by 

Richard  Clay  and  Sons,  Limited, 

brunswick  street,  stamkord  street,  s.e.  i, 

and  bungay,  suffolk. 


d^'^&^^^i) 


PREFATORY    NOTE 


.5 


The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  provide  m  outline 
an  introduction  to  the  Hterature  of  post-Biblical 
Judaism.  We  wish  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  it  is 
an  outline,  and  nothing  more,  that  has  been  attempted. 
The  field  is  vast,  and  only  a  very  broad  survey  has 
been  possible.  Many  interesting  tracts  have  perforce 
been  passed  over  in  silence,  or  dismissed  with  bare 
mention  ;  and  even  when  a  subject  seems  to  occupy, 
proportionately,  a  considerable  space,  e.^:  the  general 
Historical  Survey,  it  must  be  remembered  that  only 
the  slightest  treatment  of  the  theme  has  been  possible. 
Anything  like  an  adequate  exposition  would  have 
required  several  volumes.  Our  work  is  essentially 
an  Introduction,  in  the  elementary  sense.  We  have 
in  mind  the  needs  of  a  very  large  body  of  readers  to 
whom  the  whole  field  of  later  Jewish  literature  is 
absolutely  unknown.  We  hope  that  this  manual  will 
open  to  them  a  new  and  fascinating  field  of  study. 
We  have  more  especially  tried  to  bring  out,  by  way 
of  the  suggestion  of  points,  the  importance  of  so  much 
of  this  literature  for  the  study  of  Christian  origins  ; 
this  applies  more  particularly  to  the  earlier  phases  of 
Rabbinical  literature,  when  Judaism  and   Christianity 

V 

d7t>20<> 


vi  PREFATORY   NOTE 

were  more  nearly  allied  to  a  common  original.  As 
time  went  on  they  diverged  more  and  more,  though 
even  in  the  later  phases  a  certain  amount  of  mutual 
influence,  conscious  and  unconscious,  must  be  allowed 
for.  An  interesting  instance  of  how  an  element  which 
was  original  to  Judaism,  and  was  afterwards  for  a 
considerable  time  either  suppressed  or  driven  into  the 
background,  only  to  re-emerge  after  the  lapse  of 
centuries,  is  the  case  of  the  apocalyptic  or  mystical 
tradition.  Such  writings,  e.g.,  as  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
which  has  survived  in  an  Oriental  version  of  a  Greek 
rendering,  meet  us  again  to  a  large  extent  in  a  Hebrew 
form  in  the  Geonic  period,  i.e.  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  A.D.  ;  the  bearing  of  such  a  fact  as  this  on 
the  study  of  Christian  origins  has  not  hitherto  been 
adequately  recognised. 

In  seeking,  then,  to  cover  so  vast  a  field  within  the 
compass  of  a  single  volume,  only  a  bird's-eye  survey 
has  been  possible;  but  in  some  respects  the  readers  we 
have  in  view  will  find  this  a  gain.  If  the  study  of  our 
book  should  in  any  way  serve  to  stimulate  others  to 
delve  more  deeply  into  this  interesting  literature,  or 
should  be  the  means  of  sending  them  to  larger  works 
which  specialise  upon  subjects  only  cursorily  dealt 
with  here,  we  shall  be  amply  repaid  for  our  labours. 
We  have  endeavoured  to  indicate  many  of  the  more 
important  aids  to  study  in  short  selected  bibliographies; 
but  we  have  not  felt  it  necessary  to  attempt  to  give 
exhaustive  lists  of  works  on  the  various  subjects 
referred  to. 


PREFATORY   NOTE  vii 

We  have  deliberately  omitted  from  our  survey  the 
most  modern  phase  of  Jewish  literature,  which  may 
be  said  to  date,  roughly,  from  the  time  of  Moses 
Mendelssohn  (i  729-1 786).  This  is  so  essentially 
modern,  and  is  divided  off  by  so  clear  a  line  of 
demarcation  from  the  older  literature,  that  it  seemed 
desirable  to  leave  it  out  of  account.  We  have  limited 
ourselves  to  tracing  out  the  literary  development  to 
the  close  of  the  mediaeval  period,  which  in  the  case  of 
Jewish  literature  may  be  reckoned  to  have  extended 
to  the  sixteenth  century. 

A  word  of  explanation  may  be  necessary  as  to  the 
relation  of  the  present  book  to  our  earlier  work.  The 
Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Synagogue  (second 
edition,  191 1).  Though  to  some  limited  extent  the  two 
books  cover  the  same  ground — viz.  in  the  treatment  of 
Rabbinical  literature — yet  they  are  essentially  distinct 
and  independent.  We  are  here  concerned  primarily 
with  the  literature  of  Judaism,  while  in  the  earlier 
work  this  occupied  only  a  subordinate  place,  Jewish 
religious  life,  custom,  thought,  and  doctrine  being  the 
main  themes.  In  consequence  it  will  be  noticed,  if  a 
comparison  be  made,  that  our  treatment  of  the 
common  element  in  this  volume  is  on  a  larger  and 
fuller  scale  ;  while  very  many  subjects  dealt  with  in 
the  earlier  book  are  not  even  mentioned  in  the  present 
one. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  in  the  volume 
before  us  a  certain  amount  of  repetition  of  particular 
points    is    inevitable  ;    for   we    have   endeavoured  to 


viii  PREFATORY   NOTE 

survey  the  literature  under  distinct  heads  and  classi- 
fications ;  but  as  these  necessarily  shade  off  into  each 
other  some  overlapping  is  unavoidable. 

We  have  also  found  it  impossible  to  be  quite  con- 
sistent in  matters  of  spelling  and  transliteration,  for 
there  does  not  yet  seem  to  be  any  generally  accepted 
system,  and  in  quoting  from  other  writers  we  find 
variations  in  this  respect.  But  we  hope  that  no  serious 
inconvenience  will  result  from  this  cause. 

Our  earnest  hope  is  that  this  strange  and  unfamiliar 
world  of  letters  may  become  more  widely  known  to 
the  general  reader.  We  shall  be  well  content  if  our 
volume  can  assist  in  any  real  way  towards  attaining 
this  end. 

If  only  a  society  could  be  organised  on  an  adequate 
basis,  to  be  called  (shall  we  say  ?)  "  The  Medic-eval 
Hebrew  Text  Society,"  which  would  undertake  to 
publish  the  original  texts,  with  English  translations 
(on  opposite  pages),  of  the  best  of  these  treasures, 
many  a  delightful  book  which  is  now  buried  in 
manuscript  in  European  libraries  would  be  given  to 
the  world. 

Our  warm  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  A.  R.  S. 
Kennedy  of  Edinburgh,  who  has  kindly  read  through 
the  proofs  and  made  many  valuable  suggestions.  The 
reader's  attention  is  called  to  the  list  of  Addenda 
printed  on  pp.  305-306. 

W.  O.  E.  Oesterlev. 
G.  H.  Box. 


CONTENTS 

PART    I 
GENERAL    HISTORICAL  SURVEY 

PAGE 

I.— THE   POST-EXILIC   PERIOD 4 

II.— THE   MACCAByEAN   ERA    AND    THE    HASMON/EANS  ; 

THE    FALL   OF   JERUSALEM II 

III.— THE  TALMUDIC   PERIOD  : 

(i)  The  Tannaitic  Period 20 

(ii)  The  Period  of  the  Amoraim         ...        22 
(iii)  The  Period  of  the  Saboraim         ...        24 

IV.— THE   GEONIC    PERIOD 25 

V. — THE  JEWS    IN    SPAIN 29 

FART    II 
THE    RABBINICAL   LITERATURE 

I. — THE  TARGUMS  : 

(i)  Introductory 39 

(ii)  On  the  Targums  generally      ....  43 

(iii)  The  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  the  Targums     .  46 
(iv)  A  Short  Account  of  the  Different  Targums  : 

The  Targum  of  Onkelos      ...  50 

The  Palestinian  Targum      .        .        .  52 

The  "  Fragment "  Targum  ...  54 

The  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel  54 

The  Targums  to  the  Hagiographa     .  55 


CONTENTS 


II.  — THE    MIDKASHIM  :  pagb 

(i)  Introductory .  57 

(ii)  Midrash  Halakah  and  Midrash  Haggadah  60 
(iii)  A  Short  Account  of  the  Different  Midrashic 
Works  : 

Bereshith  Rabbah 65 

Aggadath  Bereshith      ....  68 

Mekilta            68 

Shemoth  Rabbah 69 

Sifra 70 

Wayyikra  Rabbah         ....  70 

Sifre         .        .         •       ....  71 

Bemidbar  Rabbah          .        .        .        .  71 

Debarim  Rabbah 72 

Midrash  Shemuel          .        .        .        .  72 

Midrash  Tehillim          .        .        .        .  72 
Midrash  Mis  hie     ...                -73 

Midrash  Yojiah 74 

The  Five  Megilloth      .                .        .  74 

Pesikta ']'] 

Pesikta  Rabbati 78 

Tajichuina   Yelaminedcnii    .        .        .  ']'i 

Midrash  Hashketn        .        .        .        .  79 

Pirke  de  Rabbi  Eliezer        ...  79 

Yalkut  Shimeoni 79 

Yalkut  ha-Makiri         ....  79 

Midrash  ha-Gadol        ....  80 

The  Proems    .        .        .        .        .        .  80 

III.— THE   TALMUDIC    LITERATURE  : 

(i)  Introductory       .......  82 

(ii)  The  Mishnah,  Tosephta,  and  Baraithas       .  97 

(iii)  The  Talmuds 114 


PART    III 


THE   JEWISH    LITURGY 

I.  — SOME   PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS 
II.— SOURCES   OF  THE    PRESENT   LITURGY 


141 

149 


CONTENTS  xi 

III.— NON-SACRIFICIAL     P:LEMENTS     IN     THE     TEMPLE  page 

WORSHIP 151 

IV. — THE       STRUCTURE       OF      THE      DAILY      MORNING 

SERVICE 155 

V. — THE  Zemiroth 161 

VI.— THE  Sheina!-           162 

VII.— THE  Shemoiieh  '•Esreh 164 

VIII. — THE   Tach(inu?iim 180 

IX. — THE   READING   OF   THE   LAW 182 

X.—Kaddtsh 183 

■     XL— THE    SERVICES    FOR    THE    SABBATH  : 

(i)  Inauguration  of  the  Sabbatli   .        •       .        .  188 

(ii)  Service  for  Sabbath  Eve  .....  190 
(iii)  Service  for  Sabbath  Morning          .        .        .191 

(iv)  Additional  Service  for  the  Sabbath       .        .  193 
(v)  Service  for  Sabbath  Afternoon        .        .        .194 

(vi)  Service  for  the  Conclusion  of  the  Sabbath    .  195 

XII.— THE    FESTIVAL   SERVICES I96 

XIIL  — THE  DAY  OF  ATONEMENT  AND  OTHER  FAST-DAYS  I98 
XIV. —THE      BURIAL      SERVICE;       PRAYERS      FOR      THE 

DEPARTED 20I 


PART    IV 
THE    MEDIEVAL    LITERATURE 

I. —INTRODUCTORY 209 

II. — GRAMMAR    AND    EXEGESIS  .  •         .  .  .  .  212 

III.— THE    MYSTICAL   LITERATURE 235 

IV.— PHILOSOPHY   AND    ETHICS 254 

v.— THE   MEDI/EVAL   POETRY 27I 

VI.— SOME   OTHER    FORMS   OF    LITERATURE    .  .  .  290 

CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE 299 

SHORT  TITLES  OF  FAMOUS  RABBIS     .  .  •  •  305 

ADDENDA 3^7 

INDEX 3^1 


ABBREVIATIONS    USED    IN    THIS 
VOLUME. 

DB  =  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

JE  =  The  Jeiuish  Encyclopcsdia  (12  vols.). 

JQR  =  The  JeLuish  Quarterly  Review. 

MT  =  Masoretic  Text. 

RWS^  =  Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Syfiagogue,  by  W.  O.  E. 
Oesterley  and  G.  H.  Box  (second  edition,  191 1). 

RV  =  Revised  Version  (of  the  English  Bible). 

Schiirer  GJV  =  Schiirer's  Geschichte  des  jiidischen  Volkes  (3 
vols.),  latest  edition. 

Singer  =  The  Authorised  Daily  Prayer  Book  (Hebrew  and 
English),  edited  by  the  Rev.  S.  Singer  (for  use  in  the 
Synagogues  of  the  British  Empire) :  published  by  Eyre 
and  Spottisvvoode. 

TB  =  The  Babylonian  Talmud. 

TJ  =  The  Jerusalem  (or  Palestinian)  Talmud. 

Zunz  GV  =  Die gottesdienstlichen  Vortrdge  der  Juden,  von  D r. 
Zunz  (ist  edition,  1832  ;  2nd  edition,  1892). 

[In  the  transliteration  of  Hebrew  words  h  or  ch  represents  n, 
:?,  and  t  =  ^.'\ 


PART    I 

GENERAL   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


>&^  • 


PART   I 

GENERAL   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

[Literature  (selected)  :  Josephus,  Antiquities,  bks.  xiii.- 
XX.;  Reinach,  Textes  d\iuteu7-s  grecs  et  romains  7'elatifs  au 
Judaisme  (1895)  5  Schiirer,  Geschichte  des  Jiidischen  Volkes, 
Band  i.  (1901J  ;  Stade,  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  ii.  (1888)  ; 
Edwyn  Bevan,  The  House  of  Seleucus  (1902)  ;  Jerusalem  under 
the  High-priests  (1904)  ;  Holtzmann,  Neutestainentliche  Zeit- 
geschichte,  pp.  1-69  (1906). 

Milman,  History  of  the  Jews  (1829);  Jost,  Geschichte  des 
fudenthu7ns  und  seiner  Sekten  (1857  .  .  .  ) ;  Karpeles, 
Geschichte  der  Jiidischen  Literatur  (1886);  Graetz,  History  0/ 
the  Jews  (i8g  I -I  SgS) ;  Cassel,  Lehrbuch  der  Jiidischen  Ge- 
schichte und  Literatur  ( 1 896). 

Lindo,  History  of  the  Jews  of  Spain  and  Portugal  (1848) ; 
Jacobs,  The  Jews  of  Angevin  England  (1892);  Abrahams, 
The  Expulsiofi  of  the  Jews  from  E?igland  (i^c)^)  ;  Jewish  Life 
i7t  the  Middle  Ages  ( 1 896)  ;  Chapters  on  Jewish  Literature 
(1899);  Maimonides  (1903);  Hyamson,  A  History  of  the 
Jews  in  England  (1908)  ;  Rigg,  Select  Pleas,  Starrs,  and 
other  Records  fro?n  the  Rolls  of  the  Exchequer  of  the  Jews, 
A.D.  1220-1284  (Selden  Society)  (1902).  The  many  relevant 
articles  in  JE^^ 

No  apology  is  needed  if,  as  a  preliminary  to  our 
review  of  Rabbinical  literature,  we  take  a  brief 
glance  at  the  historical  background  of  the  various 
periods  during  which  that  literature  was  in  growth. 
It  is  probably  true  to  say  that  in  no  other  case  has 
the  literature  of  a  people  been  so  conditioned  by  the 
trend  of  historical  events  as  in  that  of  the  Jews — a 
fact  which  is  perhaps  to   be   accounted    for   by   the 

B  2 


'4 ' "'feABBINtCAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

unique  position  which  has  always  been  occupied  by 
the  Jews  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

It  is  over  a  stretch  of  many  centuries  that  our  task 
will  lead  us  ;  therefore,  of  necessity,  our  historical 
survey  can  take  account  only  of  the  more  notable 
landmarks.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  attempt  to 
write  history  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word  ;  we 
desire  only  to  depict  in  outline  the  historical  back- 
ground of  certain  periods  of  Jewish  history  which 
have  been  marked  by  special  literary  activity,  or 
have  been  the  promising  seed-field  in  which  the  later 
harvest  has  germinated.  We  hope  also  to  point  out, 
if  possible,  how  the  historical  conditions  of  those 
periods  have  affected  and  influenced  the  national 
literature. 


THE   POST-EXILIC    PERIOD 

In  the  year  550  B.C.,  or  thereabouts,  Cyrus  II., 
king  of  Persia,  had  conquered  the  entire  Median 
empire,  and  he  proceeded  then  to  deal  with  what 
would  have  been  a  dangerous  neighbour  if  un- 
subdued— namely,  the  kingdom  of  Lydia.  Croesus 
saw  what  was  coming  and  tried  to  forestall  the 
blow  by  making  alliances  with  Nabonidos,  king  of 
Babylon,  and  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt.  It  was  in  the 
interest  of  both  these  monarchs  to  check  the  growing 
power  of  the  Persian  conqueror.  Cyrus,  however, 
struck  too  soon  for  them,  and  in  a  single  campaign 
(547  B.C.)  defeated  Croesus  before  the  allied  armies 
had  been  able  to  join  him.  Possibly  as  early  as  the 
following  year  Cyrus,  in  continuation  of  his  con- 
quests, attacked  Nabonidos  ;  at  any  rate,  within  the 
next  few  years,  assisted  by  internal  troubles  in 
Babylonia,  he  mastered  this  country  too,  and 
entered  Babylon,  which  he  now  made  the  capital  of 


THE  POST-EXILIC  PERIOD  5 

his  empire.  From  the  so-called  "  Cyrus  cylinder,"  on 
which  the  Babylonian  priests  recorded  the  doings  of 
Cyrus,  we  learn  that  he  respected  the  religion  of  the 
conquered  country  and  himself  accepted  the  worship 
of  the  gods  of  Babylonia.^  This  is  fully  in  accord 
with  his  statesmanlike  and  broad-minded  treatment 
of  the  Jews  and  their  religion  as  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testament,  which  enabled  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  to 
carry  on  their  work — a  work  which  had  the  most  far- 
reaching  effect  on  both  the  religious  development 
and  the  literature  of  the  Jews. 

During  the  long  period  of  Persian  rule  over  the 
Jews  there  are  but  scanty  records  of  their  history ; 
they  were  not  sufficiently  important  to  the  outside 
world  for  historians  to  write  about  them,  while  the 
paucity  of  records — not  always  reliable — supplied  by 
the  Jews  themselves  must  be  accounted  for  by  the 
restless  and  dangerous  times  through  which  they 
lived.  Incessant  wars  went  on  around  them  ;  they 
did  not,  it  is  true,  take  any  direct  share  in  these,  but 
it  was  inevitable  that  they  should  have  been  greatly 
affected  by  the  turmoil  which  raged  at  their  very 
doors;  for  during  the  long  struggle  between  the 
Persians  and  the  Egyptians  (408-343  B.C.)  Syria  was 
the  centre  in  which  many  a  sanguinary  battle  was 
fought  out,  until,  at  length,  in  343  B.C.,  Artaxerxes  III. 
(Ochus)  finally  conquered  the  Egyptians.  Although, 
as  has  just  been  said,  the  Jews  did  not  take  any 
direct  share  in  this  struggle,  from  two  incidents 
which  are  on  record  it  appears  that  they  were 
tempted  to  make  a  bid  for  independence,  for  in 
353  B.C.,  according  to  Orosius  (ill.  vii.  6  f),  Jericho 
was  attacked  by  the  Persians  and  destroyed ;  a 
number  of  Jews  were  carried  away  captive  to 
Hyrcania  and  Babylon.  The  other  incident,  some- 
what obscure,  is  that  recorded  by  Josephus  {Antiq.  XI. 

1  cp.  Hommel,  Geschichte  Babylonie7is  uiid  Assyrietis,  pp. 
785  ff.  (1885). 


6      RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

vii.  i)  ;  he  tells  of  how  Bagoses  {i.e.  Bagoas),  one  of 
the  generals  in  Artaxerxes'  army,  punished  the  Jews 
because  Jochanan  slew  his  brother  Joshua,  the  high- 
priest,  in  the  Temple.  It  is  not  clear  why  the  people 
as  a  whole  should  have  been  made  to  suffer  for  the 
individual  outrage  perpetrated  by  Jochanan.  The 
story  as  given  by  Josephus  is  incomplete ;  but,  in 
view  of  the  earlier  incident,  mentioned  above,  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  reflects  some  further 
attempt  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yoke.  The  date  of 
this  occurrence  is  uncertain,  but  it  probably  took 
place  while  Artaxerxes  was  preparing  his  third  cam- 
paign against  the  Egyptians  (348-346). 

The  downfall  of  the  Persian  empire,  which  was  one 
of  the  results  of  Alexander's  victories,  did  not,  so  far 
as  we  know,  greatly  affect  the  Jews  at  first.  It  is  to 
be  presumed  that  they  recognised  the  Greek  ascend- 
ancy and  bowed  to  the  inevitable.  Not  long  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  in  323,  began  the  great 
conflict  between  the  Seleucids  and  the  Ptolemys, 
which  continued,  with  interludes,  during  practically 
the  whole  of  the  third  century  B.C.  During  most  of 
this  time,  again,  the  Jews  do  not  seem  to  have 
suffered  excepting  in  so  far  as  the  constant  clash  of 
warring  elements  around  them  necessarily  brought 
hardships.  They  had  to  pay  tribute  to  both  Seleucids 
and  Ptolemys,  as  these  were  alternately  victorious ; 
but  otherwise,  so  far  as  our  scanty  records  give  us 
information,  they  were  not  molested.  They  showed 
a  preference,  upon  the  whole,  for  the  Ptolemys,  since 
these  had  greater  consideration  for  Jewish  religious 
susceptibilities  than  the  Seleucids.^  But  towards  the 
end  of  the  third  century  a  great  revulsion  of  feeling 
took  place,  and  a  considerable  section  of  the  Jews 
threw  in  their  lot  with  the  Seleucid  ruler  Antiochus  III. 

^  For  further  details,  see  Oesterley,  The  Books  of  the 
Apocrypha :  their  Origin^  Teachings  and  Contents,  pp.  28  ff. 
(1914). 


THE  POST-EXILIC  PERIOD  7 

The  reason  for  this  was,  in  all  probability,  due  to  the 
growth  of  Hellenistic  influence  among  many  of  the 
Jews  {cp.  I  Mace.  i.  11  f )  ;  though  in  3  Mace.  i.  10  f 
it  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Ptolemy  IV. 
attempted  to  enter  into  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Towards 
the  close  of  our  period  a  lamentable  strife  broke  out 
between  the  aristocratic  priestly  families  of  Onias 
and  Tobias  in  Jerusalem ;  it  was  concerned  with 
religious  as  well  as  political  questions,  and  ceased 
only  with  the  rise  of  the  Maccabees.^ 

In  spite  of  both  external  and  (to  some  extent)  in- 
ternal unrest  during  these  centuries,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  whole  period  was  one  of  much  growth 
and  development  among  the  Jews  in  more  directions 
than  one.  Indeed,  it  is  true  to  say  that  the  seeds  from 
which  the  Rabbinical  literature  grew  (and  this  is 
here  our  main  concern)  began  to  be  planted  as  early 
as  the  time  of  the  Exile  itself  One  fact  in  par- 
ticular is  to  be  noticed  here  as  being  especially 
important  from  our  present  point  of  view,  although 
its  relevancy  may  not  be  immediately  apparent :  for 
an  individual  Israelite  to  be  exiled  from  his  native 
land  was  about  as  cruel  a  lot  as  could  befall  him,  for 
it  meant  separation  from  his  God  and  the  snapping 
asunder  of  the  tie  which  bound  him  to  the  com- 
munal life  of  his  tribe,  with  all  that  these  things 
signified.  But  in  the  case  of  the  Babylonian  Exile, 
not  individuals,  but  whole  families  and  tribes  were 
taken  away ;  when  these,  therefore,  settled  down  in 
their  new  home  they  were  able  to  continue  to  live 
under  the  same  internal  political  and  social  con- 
ditions as  in  Palestine.  To  a  large  extent  this  was 
also  the  case  regarding  their  religious  life ;  the 
sacrificial  system,  it  is  true,  could  not  be  continued — 
a  fact  which  resulted  in  consequences  of  the  highest 

1  For  a  detailed  account  of  this  struggle,  see  Biichler's 
learned  work,  Die  Tobiadm  und  Oniaden  .  .  .  (1899),  where  all 
the  sources  are  thoroughly  examined. 


8      RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

importance  to  the  religion  of  the  Jews.  Moreover, 
since  whole  families  and  septs  went  together  into 
exile,  there  was  not,  as  would  have  been  the  case 
with  an  individual,  the  same  feeling  of  separation 
from  the  national  God,  because,  the  family  consti- 
tuting, according  to  the  old  belief,  a  self-contained 
unit  for  the  purposes  of  worship,  Plis  presence  was 
believed  to  be  assured,  even  in  a  strange  land. 
Besides,  although  the  conception  of  "  the  God  of  the 
land  "  still  obtained  to  some  extent,  it  is  clear  from 
the  books  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  that  a  worthier 
belief  regarding  the  God  of  Israel  had  been  attained  ; 
and  there  is  especially  this  fact,  that  many  priests, 
and,  above  all,  the  heads  of  families,  had  come  into 
Babylon.  According  to  very  ancient  belief  and 
custom,  the  heads  of  families  were  the  religious,  as 
well  as  the  political,  leaders  of  the  people ;  their 
importance  and  influence,  which  had  been  so  cur- 
tailed by  the  rise  of  the  monarchy,  were  now 
immensely  increased,  since  the  monarchy  was  no 
more  ;  this  is  abundantly  clear  from  the  books  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  They,  therefore,  took  up  their 
old  position  of  leaders  of  the  people,  both  from  the 
point  of  view  of  politics  and  of  religion. 

Further,  there  are  many  indications  which  lead  us 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  lot  of  the  exiles  in 
Babylon  was  not  a  hard  one.  What  the  prophet 
Ezekiel  says  does  not  suggest  that  the  general 
conditions  were  in  any  sense  intolerable,^  nor  does 
Jeremiah  anticipate  a  time  of  cruel  hardship  for  the 
people,  as  is  clear  from  his  words :  "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel,  unto  all  the  cap- 
tivity, whom  I  have  caused  to  be  carried  away 
captive  from  Jerusalem  to  Babylon  :  Build  ye  houses, 
and  dwell  in  them  ;  and  plant  gardens,  and  eat  the 
fruit  of  them  ;  take  ye  wives,  and  beget  sons  and 
daughters,  and  take  wives  for  your  sons,  and  give 
^  Ezek.  i.  3  ;  viii.  i  ;  cp.  Ezra  viii.  15-21. 


THE  POST-EXILIC  PERIOD  9 

your  daughters  to  husbands,  that  they  may  bear  sons 
ancd  daughters  ;  and  multiply  ye  there,  and  be  not 
diminished.  And  seek  the  peace  of  the  city  whither 
I  have  caused  you  to  be  carried  away  captive,  and 
pray  unto  the  Lord  for  it ;  for  in  the  peace  thereof 
shall  ye  have  peace"  (xxix.  4-7).  Clearly,  the 
people  had  reasonable  freedom ;  they  lived  un- 
molested, and  were  able  to  carry  on  their  various 
callings.  But  the  most  important  factor  was  that 
they  were  permitted  the  unrestricted  exercise  of  their 
religion.  It  was  here  that  a  deep  and  far-reaching 
change  began  to  take  place.  Instead  of  the  sacri- 
ficial system,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  chief 
religious  expression  in  Israel,  but  which  could  now 
no  longer  be  carried  out,  the  people — or,  at  all 
events,  their  religious  guides — were  led  to  think  of 
the  deeper  truths  of  religion  :  the  problem  of  sin, 
personal  responsibility,  the  meaning  of  suffering,  a 
fuller  conception  of  atonement ;  and  there  resulted  a 
wider  apprehension  of  God  and  of  His  relationship  to 
man  and  to  the  world.  Not  that  all  the  ancient  and 
time-honoured  external  religious  requirements  were 
forgotten  ;  circumcision  and  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  were  more  than  ever  emphasised  ;  indeed, 
these  came  to  be  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the 
Jews.  All  these  facts  point  to  the  Exile  as  being  the 
period  during  which  the  foundations  were  being  laid 
for  that  development  of  the  Jewish  religion  the 
ultimate  development  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Rabbinical  literature.  The  later  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  furnish  us  with  many  indications  of  how, 
in  the  practical  religious  life  of  the  people,  things 
were  proceeding  during  the  succeeding  century  or 
two  ;  and  before  we  conclude  this  section  it  will  be 
well  to  refer  quite  briefly  to  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant ways  in  which  this  is  illustrated  by  these  books. 

From  a  liturgical  point  of  view,  it  is  of  interest  to 
note  that,   according   to    i    Chron.   xxiv.    1-19,   the 


10    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

priests  were  divided  into  twenty-four  courses,  and 
from  2  Chron.  xxiii.  4,  8,  we  learn  that  these  courses 
changed  every  Sabbath.^  It  was  the  same  with  the 
Levites ;  see  i  Chron.  xxiii.  3-32;  xxiv.  20-31. 
That  these  arrangements  were  brought  about  during 
the  post-Exilic  period  and  were  not  part  of  the 
earlier  practice  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  neither  in 
the  Pentateuch  nor  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  is  there  any  mention  of 
them.  Developments  in  the  conduct  of  the  services 
are  of  a  still  more  far-reaching  character.  So  far  as 
the  Temple  singers  are  concerned,  while  they  are 
unknown  in  the  Pentateuch,  their  position  is  an 
established  one,  according  to  Neh.  vii.  44  ;  xi.  23  ; 
xii.  28 ;  although  here  they  apparently  occupy  a 
lower  grade  than  the  Levites.  But,  according  to 
I  Chron.  xxv.,  they,  too,  were  divided  into  twenty- 
four  courses  ;  and,  what  is  more  important,  they  were 
reckoned  among  the  Levites  (although  occupying  a 
lower  grade),  according  to  I  Chron.  xxiii.  3-5,  for  the 
leaders  of  the  three  choirs  were  Asaph,  Heman,  and 
Ethan  (or  Jeduthun,  in  i  Chron.  xv.  17,  19;  xxv. 
1-6;  2  Chron.  v.  12),  who  belong  to  the  "sons  of 
Levi,  Gershom,  Kohath,  and  Merari "  (see  i  Chron.  vi. 
16-32).  These  facts  point  not  only  to  the  import- 
ance placed  upon  the  elaborating  of  the  Temple 
services  and  to  the  consequent  effect  upon  the 
Liturgy,  but  also  to  the  far-reaching  results  which 
were  ultimately  brought  about  by  the  general  body 
of  worshippers  being  made  to  take  part  in  the 
services,  through  being  led  by  the  Levitical  choir, 
and  by  singing  the  Hallelujah  and  saying  the  Amen 
{cp.  I  Chron.  xvi.  36  ;  Ps.  cvi.  48).  The  priests,  of 
course,  still  continued  to  perform  the  main  parts  of 
the  services,  but  they  were  no  more  in  the  position 
of  entire  separation  from  the  congregation  which  had 
obtained  in  earlier  days.  We  must  see  here,  there- 
1  cp.  pp.  147  ff. 


THE  MACCAB^AN  ERA  n 

fore,  the  beginnings  of  congregational  worship  in  the 
real  sense  of  the  word. 

And,  lastly,  the  Scribes  of  this  period  began  to 
form  themselves  into  guilds  {cp.  i  Chron.  ii.  55);  and 
from  the  later  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  (xxxviii.  24- 
xxxix.  11)  we  can  see  that  they  devoted  themselves 
exclusively  to  the  study  of  sacred  literature,  the  Law 
being  the  centre  of  all  their  activities.  The  import- 
ance of  this  from  our  present  point  of  view  needs  no 
emphasis,  since  they  were  in  the  truest  sense  the 
spiritual  forbears  of  the  Rabbis. 


II 

THE   MACCAB^AN    ERA   AND   THE   HASMON^ANS  ; 
THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  Maccabaean  rising  was 
the  attempt  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Syrian 
king,  to  enforce  uniformity  of  religion  and  worship 
throughout  his  kingdom  (see  i  Mace.  i.  41  ff.),  and 
therefore  upon  the  Jews.  He  was  doubtless  encou- 
raged to  make  this  attempt  owing  to  the  presence 
among  his  Jewish  subjects  of  a  strongly  pro- 
Hellenistic  party  (see  i  Mace.  i.  13-15).  The  priestly 
aristocracy  in  Jerusalem,  headed  by  the  usurping 
high-priest  Menelaus  (of  the  house  of  Tobias),  sided 
with  Antiochus ;  and  it  is  evident  that  he  was 
followed  by  a  considerable  section  of  the  people. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  Jews  who  were  faithful  to 
their  religion  showed  a  very  different  spirit.  They 
first  fled  into  the  wilds  east  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  on 
being  attacked  on  the  Sabbath  day  they  refused  even 
to  defend  themselves,  lest  they  should  desecrate  the 
Sabbath,  and  were  slaughtered  in  cold  blood — a 
most  striking  illustration  of  the  powerful  effect 
which  insistence  on  the  observance  of  the  Law  had 


12    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

had  upon  many  Jews.  But  this  tame  and  useless 
attitude  did  not  last  long  (i  Mace.  ii.  39-41).  Active 
resistance  first  took  place  under  Mattathias,  an  aged 
priest  from  Modin.  He,  together  with  his  five  sons, 
organised  a  Jewish  army  whose  watchword  was  to 
fight  and  die  for  the  Law.  Thus  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  religious  wars  in  history  came  about 
(167  B.C.).  Mattathias  was  the  grandson  of  one 
named  Hasmon,  and  it  is  from  him  that  the  Macca- 
bseans  took  the  family  name  of  the  Hasmonaeans. 
The  bold  example  set  by  Mattathias  attracted  many 
to  his  side,  and  especially  the  Chasidint^  the 
"saints,"  as  they  are  called  in  Ps.  xxx.  4  (5)  (i  Mace, 
ii.  42  ;  cp.  vii.  12-14).  His  first  efforts  were  directed 
against  renegade  Jews,  and  he  succeeded  in  re-estab- 
lishing respect  for  the  Jewish  Law  in  Jewish  lands. 
But  he  died  in  the  following  year  (166  B.C.),  and 
the  leadership  was  taken  by  his  son  Judas,  the 
"  Maccabaian,"  who  vigorously  attacked  the  Syrians 
and  succeeded  in  driving  them  from  Jerusalem  and 
the  surrounding  country.  The  Holy  City  thereupon 
became  the  religious  centre  of  the  revolt.  The 
Temple  was  cleansed  ;  "  blameless  priests,  such  as 
had  pleasure  in  the  Law,"  were  chosen  ;  the  holy 
place  was  rebuilt ;  and  all  the  old  services  and 
sacrifices  were  reinstituted.  A  special  ceremony  of 
Dedication  [ChanukkaJt)^  took  place  in  December, 
165  B.C.  {cp.  Ps.  xxx.  title);  and  for  a  brief  period 
there  was  peace  (see  i  Mace.  iv.  36-61).  The  war 
soon  broke  out  again,  however ;  the  Jews  were 
attacked  by  some  of  the  smaller  peoples  who  had 
made  common  cause  with  the  chief  enemy  ;  while 
both  in  Gilead  and  Galilee  the  Gentiles  menaced  the 
Jews.  But  in  all  these  theatres  of  the  war  Judas, 
greatly  helped  by  his  brother  Simon,  was  successful. 
The  high  hopes  now  entertained  by  the  Hasmonaeans 
were  but  short-lived.  We  cannot  enter  here  upon  all 
^  This  festival  has  been  kept  annually  by  the  Jews  ever  since. 


THE  MACCAB^AN   ERA  13 

the  details  of  the  struggle.^  Suffice  it  to  say  that, 
thanks  to  the  leadership  of  Judas,  religious  liberty 
was  gained  ;  but  in  161  Judas  fell,  and  his  followers 
were  filled  with  despair.  Nevertheless,  his  brother 
Jonathan,  nothing  daunted,  took  up  the  struggle,  and 
with  success  ;  in  i  Mace.  ix.  73  it  is  said  :  "  And  the 
sword  ceased  from  Israel.  And  Jonathan  dwelt  at 
Michmash.  And  Jonathan  began  to  judge  the 
people ;  and  he  destroyed  the  ungodly  out  of 
Israel."  The  struggle  soon  after  was  continued,  but 
it  entered  upon  a  new  phase  owing  to  the  activity  of 
the  rival  claimants  to  the  Syrian  throne.  The  Macca- 
bsean  power,  as  it  had  now  become,  occupied  the 
position  of  the  deciding  factor,  and  was  thus  courted 
first  by  the  one  and  then  by  the  other  claimant  to 
the  throne.  Jonathan  was  clever  enough  to  utilise 
this  for  the  advantage  of  his  people.  In  153  he  was 
recognised  as  head  of  the  Jewish  people  and  was 
appointed  high-priest  of  the  nation. 

From  this  point  may  be  dated  the  real  beginning 
of  the  Hasmonaean  rule  in  Jerusalem.  In  143 
Jonathan  was  assassinated  through  Syrian  treachery, 
and  his  brother  Simon  succeeded  him  as  leader  and 
high-priest.  He  continued  the  energetic  and  clever 
policy  of  his  brother,  and  increased  the  nation's  terri- 
tory. Owing  to  him,  Judaea  became  recognised 
as  an  independent  country,  and  the  Hasmonaean 
dynasty  was  formally  established.  Thus  both  reli- 
gious and  political  freedom  were  gained  for  the  Jews. 

In  135  B.C.  John  Hyrkanos,  the  third  ^  son  of 
Simon,  succeeded  his  father.  On  coins  of  his  reign 
the  inscription  runs :  "  John  the  high-priest,  head  of 
the  congregation  ^  of  the  Jews."     From  this  it  is  clear 

^  For  these,  see  Oesterley,  op.  clt.  pp.  427-438. 

2  The  two  elder  sons  had  been  treacherously  slain  with  their 
father  ;  see  i  Mace.  xvi.  11-17. 

'^  The  word  is  Cheber,  meaning,  in  post-Biblical  Hebrew, 
a  "  religious  association." 


14    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

that  the  official  head  of  the  Jewish  state  looked  upon 
himself  first  and  foremost  as  a  religious  personage. 
Nevertheless,  the  fact  that  John  Hyrkanos  had  his 
name  inscribed  on  coins  (he  was,  so  far  as  is  known, 
the  first  high-priest  of  the  Jews  to  do  so)  indicates 
that  he  regarded  himself  as  a  temporal  ruler  as 
well  as  a  high-priest.  John  Hyrkanos's  long  reign 
(135-104  B.C.)  was,  according  to  Josephus,  a  prosper- 
ous one  ;  he  says  that  Hyrkanos  "  lived  happily,  and 
administered  the  government  in  the  best  manner 
for  thirty-one  years  ...  he  was  esteemed  by  God 
worthy  of  the  three  greatest  privileges,  the  govern- 
ment of  his  nation,  the  dignity  of  the  high-priesthood, 
and  prophecy;  for  God  was  with  him"  {Antiq. 
XIII.  X.  7).  Hyrkanos's  son,  Aristobulus  I.,  was  the 
first  Jewish  ruler  to  assume  definitely  the  title  of  king. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the  details  of  his  reign, 
nor  yet  of  those  of  the  two  following,  viz.  of  Alexander 
Jannaeus  (103-76  B.C.)  and  of  his  widow  Alexandra, 
or,  according  to  her  Jewish  name,  Salome  (she  died 
in  69  B.C.).  But  during  the  reign  that  followed 
altogether  new  conditions  arose,  for  Palestine  came 
under  the  suzerainty  of  Rome.  The  Roman  power 
would,  it  is  true,  have  asserted  itself  over  Palestine  in 
any  case  sooner  or  later  ;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
circumstances  in  this  country  during  the  reign  which 
followed  that  of  Alexandra  were  such  as  to  invite  the 
intervention  of  Rome.  At  the  very  end  of  Alexandra's 
reign  the  Sadducaean  party,  which  had  been  oppressed 
by  the  dominant  Pharisaic  party,  broke  out  into 
revolt  in  Judaea.  Of  Alexandra's  two  sons,  Hyrkanos 
upheld  the  Pharisaic  party,  while  Aristobulus  sided 
with  the  Sadducees.  The  latter  was  the  more 
vigorous  of  the  two  brothers  and  gained  considerable 
success  at  the  outset  of  this  struggle.  Alexandra 
died  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  strife.  During 
her  reign  she  had  appointed  her  eldest  son,  Hyrkanos, 
to    the   high-priesthood — he   was,   in    any   case,   the 


THE  MACCAB^AN  ERA  15 

rightful  successor — but  immediately  upon  her  death 
her  second  son,  Aristobulus,  sought  to  gain  the 
kingdom.  He  conquered  his  brother  in  battle  near 
Jericho,  and  Hyrkanos  fled  to  Jerusalem,  and  presently 
made  peace  by  renouncing  both  the  high-priesthood 
and  the  kingship  in  favour  of  Aristobulus.  This,  one 
would  suppose,  ought  to  have  ended  the  strife ;  but  it 
was  not  so.  Urged  on  by  Antipater  (the  father  of 
Herod  the  Great),  governor  of  Idumaea  (and,  we  may 
surmise,  by  the  leaders  of  the  Pharisaic  party,  too), 
Hyrkanos  was  induced  to  fight  for  his  rights.  An 
alliance,  brought  about  by  Antipater,  was  made 
between  Hyrkanos  and  Aretas,  an  Arab  prince. 
Together  they  attacked  Aristobulus  and  overcame 
him.  He,  as  his  brother  had  done  on  a  former 
occasion,  fled  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  besieged. 

Whilst  this  fratricidal  struggle  was  going  on, 
Pompey  had  been  conducting  his  victorious  campaign 
in  Asia.  In  the  year  65  B.C.  he  sent  one  of  his 
generals,  Scaurus,  into  Syria,  where  the  latter  heard 
of  the  civil  war  which  was  taking  place  in  Palestine. 
Both  brothers  sent  deputations  to  Scaurus  and  sought 
to  gain  him ;  in  the  end  he  decided  to  uphold 
Aristobulus.  For  the  time  being,  therefore,  Aristo- 
bulus was  master  in  Judaea.  This  did  not,  however, 
last  long.  Pompey  himself  arrived  in  Syria  in  6^  B.C., 
and  while  sojourning  in  Damascus  he  was  approached 
by  three  deputations  of  Jews ;  these  represented  the 
parties  of  Hyrkanos  and  Aristobulus,  and  a  further 
one  representing  the  Jewish  nation  ;  this  last  wished 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  two  others — an 
interesting  fact,  showing  as  it  does  that  there  was  at 
least  a  considerable  section  of  the  Jews  at  this  time 
which,  presumably,  stood  apart  from  the  Sadducaean 
and  Pharisaic  parties.  As  Pompey  was  about  to 
undertake  an  expedition  against  the  Nabatseans,  he 
told  his  petitioners  that  they  must  wait  until  this  had 
been   accomplished,  and   that  then  he  would  decide 


i6    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

upon  what  course  he  would  follow.  On  his  way 
south,  however,  he  received  news  which  gave  him 
reason  to  suspect  Aristobulus  of  treachery ;  so  he 
postponed  his  intended  campaign.  He  now  com- 
manded Aristobulus  to  deliver  up  Jerusalem.  Seeing 
that  resistance  was  useless,  Aristobulus  submitted  ;  he 
left  the  capital  and  came  to  Pompey.  Thereupon 
Pompey  sent  his  general  Gabinius  to  take  possession 
of  Jerusalem.  Gabinius,  however,  returned  without 
having  accomplished  his  purpose,  for  the  defenders  of 
Jerusalem  refused  to  give  up  possession  of  the  city  in 
spite  of  Aristobulus's  surrender.  So  Pompey  himself 
came  against  Jerusalem.  Now  in  Jerusalem  itself 
matters  were  in  a  deplorable  state,  for  the  supporters 
of  Hyrkanos  and  Aristobulus  were  quarrelling  amongst 
themselves  ;  those  of  Aristobulus  determined  to  resist, 
while  those  of  Hyrkanos  wanted  to  submit  because 
they  regarded  Pompey  as  their  deliverer.  These 
latter,  being  more  numerous,  had  their  way,  and 
Pompey  was  admitted  into  Jerusalem  without  having 
to  strike  a  blow.  The  supporters  of  Aristobulus,  how- 
ever, withdrew  to  the  Temple  mount,  the  position  of 
which  was  very  strong ;  here  they  held  out  for  three 
months,  but  were  ultimately  compelled  to  surrender. 
Jerusalem,  together  with  the  whole  land  of  the  Jews, 
became  tributary  to  Rome.  But,  in  addition  to  this, 
large  portions  of  Judaea  were  cut  off;  the  whole  of 
the  coast-land  on  the  west,  and  all  the  non-Jewish 
cities  east  of  the  Jordan,  were  taken  from  the  Jews  ; 
Samaria  also,  together  with  a  large  tract  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  was  separated  from  Judaea.  What 
was  left  of  Jewish  territory  was  placed  under  the 
high-priesthood  of  Hyrkanos  II.,  but  he  was  not 
permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  king.  It  was  not  only 
the  Jews  who  were  affected,  for  the  whole  of  Syria 
was  made  a  Roman  province. 

From    the    taking    of    Jerusalem    by    Pompey   in 
63   B.C.    to  the   year   47    B.C.,    when    Caesar  became 


THE  MACCABiEAN  ERA  17 

actively  interested  in  the  Jews,  the  lot  of  the  people 
was  a  hard  one.  But  things  altered  in  consequence 
of  Caesar's  gratitude  to  them  for  supporting  him  in 
his  Alexandrine  war ;  and  he  showed  this  in  the 
following  way  :  In  addition  to  being  confirmed  in  the 
high-priesthood,  Hyrkanos  was  made  temporal  ruler 
in  Judaea  with  the  title  of  ethnarch,  which  was  to  be 
hereditary  ;  the  supreme  court  for  the  administration 
of  justice  in  all  that  related  to  Jewish  law  was  also 
placed  under  the  immediate  jurisciiction  of  Hyrkanos  ; 
a  number  of  cities  were  given  back  to  Judaea, 
including  Joppa  on  the  coast  ;  Hyrkanos  was  per- 
mitted to  rebuild  the  walls  round  Jerusalem  ;  and 
many  taxes  were  remitted.  Further,  Caesar  rewarded 
Antipater,  who  had  also  been  of  assistance  to  him 
during  the  Alexandrine  war,  by  nominating  him 
procurator  of  Judaea.  It  is  important  to  note  that,  by 
receiving  this  office  direct  from  Caesar,  Antipater  was 
no  more  subject  to  Hyrkanos,  as  he  had  been  hitherto, 
but  was  responsible  to  Rome  alone.  This  is  of 
importance  for  the  further  history  of  Judaea,  for 
Antipater  was  thereby  enabled  to  increase  his  power. 
He  managed,  indeed,  to  procure  important  posts 
for  his  sons,  Phasael  being  appointed  to  administer 
the  district  of  Jerusalem,  and  Herod  that  of  Galilee. 
On  the  death  of  Antipater  both  his  sons  were  made 
tetrarchs,  with  the  result  that  Hyrkanos  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  lost  his  authority  as  temporal  ruler. 
This  happened  in  the  year  41  B.C.  In  the  following 
year  the  whole  condition  of  affairs  in  Judaea  became 
again  altered  owing  to  the  invasion  of  Syria  by  the 
Parthians.  There  is  no  need  to  go  into  the  details  of 
this  invasion  ;  the  special  point,  among  its  various 
consequences,  that  affected  the  Jews  was  that  Herod 
was  made  king  of  Judsea  by  the  Roman  power. 
Under  him  the  Hasmonaean  dynasty  came  to  an  end 
by  the  judicial  murder  of  the  aged  Hyrkanos  (31  B.C.). 
Upon  the  whole,  Herod  left  the  Jews  in  peace  so  far 

C 


i8    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

as  their  religion  was  concerned.  His  passion  for 
gorgeous  buildings  is  well  known,  and  need  not  be 
further  touched  upon  here  excepting  to  say  that  the 
Jews  benefited  by  it,  especially  by  the  way  in  which 
he  beautified  the  Temple. 

On  the  death  of  Herod  (B.C.  4)  his  kingdom  was 
divided  among  his  three  sons.  Archelaus  became  eth- 
narch  of  Judaea,  Idumaea,  and  Samaria  {cp.  Matt.  ii.  22); 
his  lands  (in  A.D.  6)  came  under  the  immediate  rule  of  the 
Roman  procurators,  of  whom  Pontius  Pilate  governed 
A.D.  27-37.  Antipas,  who  is  always  called  Herod 
in  the  New  Testament,  received  the  title  of  tetrarch 
(he  is  called  "  king"  in  Mk.  vi.  14) ;  he  inherited  from 
his  father  Galilee  and  Persea.  Philip  became  tetrarch 
of  north-eastern  Palestine.  But  while  the  arrangements 
regarding  these  divisions  were  being  made  in  Rome 
bitter  fighting  broke  out  in  Palestine,  where  the 
impossible  project  seems  to  have  been  entertained  by 
some  of  throwing  off  the  Roman  yoke.  Foremost 
among  the  Jewish  leaders  was  a  certain  Simon,  who 
was  active  in  Persea  ;  in  southern  Judaea  Athrouges, 
a  shepherd,  led  the  revolt ;  and,  above  all,  Judas, 
in  Galilee,  by  energetic  action  gained  important 
initial  advantages.  But  it  was  all  useless  ;  in  a  very 
short  time  Varus  crushed  every  vestige  of  opposition 
for  the  time  being.  Nevertheless,  the  national  spirit 
of  the  Jews  and  their  yearning  for  freedom,  fostered 
by  the  thoughts  of  the  heroic  and  successful  struggle 
of  the  Maccabees  in  bygone  days  against  over- 
whelming odds,  served  to  keep  the  embers  of  revolt 
from  being  extinguished.  At  last,  in  A.D.  66, 
the  long-prepared  conflagration  broke  out,  and  the 
fatal  war  against  Rome  began.  The  terrible  details 
of  this  war  cannot  be  entered  upon  here.  It  ended  at 
last  in  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Jews  with  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  A.D.  70. 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  19 


III 

THE   TALMUDIC   PERIOD 

The  fearful  struggle  with  Rome  left  the  Jews 
physically  prostrate.  But  it  had  the  further  and 
deeper  effect  of  driving  them  from  what  had  hitherto 
been  the  centre  of  their  life  and  religion.  Jerusalem 
no  longer  belonged  to  the  Jews.  A  new  phase  of  the 
Dispersion  was  about  to  commence  which  was  going 
to  make  the  words  of  Strabo  true  in  a  larger  sense 
than  he  could  ever  have  believed  when  he  wrote : 
"  Now  these  Jews  are  already  gotten  into  all  cities, 
and  it  is  hard  to  find  a  place  in  the  habitable  earth 
that  hath  not  admitted  this  tribe  of  men,  and  is 
not  possessed  by  it."^  Palestine  itself  was  divided 
up ;  it  was  in  part  distributed  among  Roman  soldiers 
and  in  part  sold  to  the  highest  bidders  ;  only  a  tiny 
remnant  was  left  to  the  Jews.  It  is  now  that  one 
is  able  to  see  the  very  far-reaching  and  abiding  effect 
which,  beginning  with  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  con- 
tinued by  like-minded  religious  leaders  through  the 
centuries,  the  teaching  of  the  Law  had  had  upon  the 
race.  They  had  lost  their  country  ;  as  a  self-con- 
stituted nation  they  were  no  longer  in  existence ; 
even  their  religion  was  in  danger.  One  thing  was 
left  to  them — the  Law,  together  with  a  mass  of 
traditional  teaching  on  the  Law  which  had  been 
handed  down  for  generations. 

What  we  have  called  the  Talmudic  period  includes 
the  time  during  which  the  many  elements  of  which 
the  Talmud  is  made  up  were  being  gathered  and 
welded  together ;  and  this  period  is  divided  into 
three  well-marked  divisions,  which  are  known  re- 
spectively as  the  times  of  the  Tannaim,  the  Amoraim, 

^  Quoted  by  Josephus,  Antiq.  xiv.  vii.  2  ;  cp.  Sib.  Orac. 
ill.  271  :  "Every  land  and  every  sea  is  full  of  thee." 

C  2 


20    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

and  the  Saboraim  ;  these  names  will  be  explained  as 
we  proceed. 

(i)   The  Tannaitic  Period 

By  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  there  were 
recognised  teachers  of  the  Oral  Law  whose  pronounce- 
ments were  regarded  as  authoritative.  Each  such 
teacher  received  the  name,  or  title,  of  Tanna, "  teacher  " 
(plur.  Tannaim),  from  the  Aramaic  root  teni,  "to 
teach."  These  teachers  all  belonged  to  the  Pharisaic 
party.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  (a.d.  yd) 
the  leaders  of  the  Pharisaic  party  received  permission 
from  Titus  to  settle  down  in  Jabne  (Jamnia),  a  small 
place  on  the  sea  coast,  not  far  from  Jaffa.  Here  they 
established  a  new  Sanhedrin,  consisting  of  seventy- 
two  "  elders  "  {Zekenim),  under  the  presidency  of  the 
now  aged  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai.  Jabne  became  a 
new  centre  for  Palestinian  Judaism,  thus  taking  the 
place  of  Jerusalem  in  this  respect ;  and  under  the 
guidance  of  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai  and  his  successors 
the  Academy,  or  Beth  ha-Midrash,  of  Jabne  became 
so  important  that  its  pronouncements  were  recognised 
as  authoritative  not  only  among  the  remnant  of  the 
Jews  in  Palestine,  but  also  throughout  the  Dispersion 
in  the  Western  world.  The  head  of  this  Academy  soon 
came  to  be  known  as  the  Nasi,  or  "  Prince."  Later  on 
the  Academy  was  removed  to  Sepphoris,  and  after- 
wards to  Tiberias.  It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  the 
lot  of  the  Jews  under  the  Romans  was  at  least  toler- 
able ;  though  a  subject  race,  they  were  not  badly 
treated  so  long  as  they  acquiesced  in  the  new  con- 
ditions ;  what  they  most  valued,  religious  freedom, 
was  fully  accorded  to  them. 

In  the  meantime  there  were  various  scattered 
Jewish  communities  in  the  East,  the  descendants  of 
the  exiles  in  Babylonia  and  Mesopotamia.  These 
had  lived  more  or  less  unmolested  for  centuries,  and 
had  gradually  established  seats  of  learning  in  Baby- 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  21 

Ionia.  Over  all  these  Eastern  Jews  there  was  a 
political  head  called  the  "  Prince  of  the  Captivity " 
{Resh  Geluthd).  Babylonia  was  destined  to  become 
the  centre  of  Rabbinical  Judaism  ;  but  before  we 
come  to  this  part  of  our  survey  we  must  continue 
briefly  to  follow  the  history  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine. 
The  period  immediately  following  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  was  comparatively  peaceful ;  certain  hard- 
ships they  had  undoubtedly  to  bear,  but  it  is  evident 
that  they  were  permitted  full  religious  liberty,  and 
intense  activity  in  the  Jewish  schools  of  learning  con- 
tinued ;  communities  were  formed  all  over  the  country, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  comparative  security 
was  enjoyed  by  the  whole  people  ;  it  would  otherwise 
be  impossible  to  account  for  the  long  and  tenacious 
resistance  offered  later  by  the  nation  to  Hadrian. 
During  the  reign  of  Trajan,  whether  on  account  of 
oppressions  or  owing  to  the  yearning  for  independence, 
the  Jews  broke  into  open  revolt  both  in  Palestine  and 
elsewhere.  For  the  time  being  they  were  subdued. 
But  when,  some  years  later,  Hadrian  attempted 
virtually  to  stamp  out  Judaism  as  a  religion,  a  really 
serious  revolt  against  the  Roman  power  burst  forth 
under  the  leadership  of  Bar-Cochba  ("son  of  a  star"). 
For  three  years,  A.D.  132-135,  the  fighting  continued  ; 
but  the  power  of  Rome  inevitably  won  the  day  at 
last.  Hadrian  founded  a  new  city  on  the  site  of 
Jerusalem,  in  which  he  planted  a  colony  of  foreigners. 
He  attempted  to  obliterate  the  very  name  of  Jeru- 
salem by  calling  his  new  city  ^Elia  Capitolina  ;  no 
Jew  was  allowed  to  enter  it. 

Among  the  religious  leaders  of  this  time  the  most 
prominent  were  the  Tanna  Rabbi  Akiba,^  who 
died  about  A.D.  132-135  probably,  and  Judah  ha- 
Nasi ;  2  the  latter,  as  the  redactor  of  the  Mishnah,  is 
certainly   one    of    the    most    important    figures    in 

^  See  further  below,  p.  95. 

2  See  further  below,  pp.  44,  96  ff. 


22    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Jewish  history.  As  religious  leader  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews  he  worked  for  many  years  in  Beth 
She'arim  (in  Galilee),  to  which  place  he  transferred 
the  seat  of  the  patriarchate  and  principal  Academy. 
Later  on  he  went  to  Sepphoris,  where  he  lived  for 
seventeen  years,  and  died  A.D.  220.  From  this  time 
onwards,  although  the  Palestinian  teachers  continued 
their  work  in  the  various  Academies  and  finally  com- 
pleted the  Palestinian  Talmud,  it  was  Babylon  which 
became  more  and  more  the  authoritative  centre  of 
Judaism. 

(ii)   The  Period  of  the  Amoraim 

"  Sherira  Gaon,  in  his  famous  letter  (the  chief 
source  for  information  on  the  Babylonian  schools), 
wrote ;  '  No  doubt,  here  in  Babylonia  public  in- 
struction was  given  in  the  Torah  ;  but  besides  the 
exilarchs  there  were  no  recognised  heads  of  schools 
until  the  death  of  Rabbi  (Judah  I.).'  The  prin- 
cipal seat  of  Babylonian  Judaism  was  Nehardea."^ 
But  it  was  the  nephew  of  Judah  I.,  Rabbi  Arika, 
known  later  as  "  Rab,"  who  initiated  a  new 
epoch,  for  with  him  began  the  time  during 
which  for  centuries  the  Academies  in  Babylonia 
played  the  leading  ro/e  as  the  fountain-head  of 
Judaism.  This  began  approximately  in  A.D.  220. 
He  founded  a  new  Academy  in  Sura,  leaving  his 
friend  Rabbi  Samuel  to  preside  at  the  ancient  seat  of 
learning  in  Nehardea.  This  latter  city  was  destroyed 
in  A.D.  259,  and  its  place  was  thereupon  taken  by  a 
town  not  far  off  called  Pumbeditha.  In  these  schools 
study  was  concentrated  upon  the  Law  and  upon 
the  various  explanations  and  comments  of  earlier 
teachers  on  it  which  had  accumulated  in  course  of 
ages,  and  which  to  a  large  extent  had  been  incor- 
porated in  the  Mishnah.  The  scholar  whose  work 
during  this  period  was  of  paramount  importance  was 

^  /E  i.  145^. 


THE  TALMUDIC  PERIOD  23 

Rabbi  Ashi,  the  president  of  the  Academy  at  Sura. 
He  undertook  the  colossal  work  of  gathering  together 
and  sifting  the  materials  which  were  the  outcome  of 
two  centuries  of  Rabbinical  labour  in  the  Academies 
of  Babylonia.  "  The  final  editing  of  the  literary 
work  which  this  labour  produced  did  not,  it  is  true, 
take  place  until  somewhat  later ;  but  tradition 
rightly  regards  Ashi  as  the  originator  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud.  Ashi's  editorial  work  received, 
indeed,  many  later  additions  and  amplifications  ;  but 
the  form  underwent  no  material  modification.  The 
Babylonian  Talmud  must  be  considered  the  work  of 
the  Academy  of  Sura,  because  Ashi  submitted  to 
each  of  the  semi-annual  general  assemblies  of  the 
Academy,  treatise  by  treatise,  the  results  of  his 
examination  and  selection,  and  invited  discussion 
upon  them.  His  work  was  continued  and  perfected, 
and  probably  reduced  to  writing,  by  succeeding 
heads  of  the  Sura  Academy  .  .  .  from  the  Academy 
of  Sura  was  issued  that  unique  literary  effort  which 
was  destined  to  occupy  such  an  extraordinary 
position  in  Judaism."^  The  date  of  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  was  approximately 
A.D.  500. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period  work  similar  to 
that  of  the  Babylonian  Academies  was  being  carried 
on  in  the  Academies  of  Palestine ;  here,  too,  a 
Talmud  was  by  degrees  being  brought  into  exist- 
ence. The  centre  from  which  this  came  forth  was 
the  Academy  of  Tiberias,  and  the  foremost  worker  in 
connexion  with  it  is  Rabbi  Jochanan  ben  Nappacha. 
All  the  teachers  of  this  period,  whether  in  Babylonia 
or  Palestine,  are  known  as  Amoraim,  the  plural  form 
of  Amora,  which  means  "a  speaker";  but  in  the  sense 
of  "  interpreter,"  it  is  used  in  reference  to  the  inter- 
preters of,  or  commentators  on,  the  Mishnah.  This 
period  lasted  to  the  year  A.D.  500. 
1  /E  i.  146^. 


24    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

(iii)    The  Period  of  the  Saborai?n 

This  period  was  of  much  shorter  duration  than  the 
two  preceding  ones.  The  scholars  to  whom  the  name 
of  Sabora  (''  decision  ")  was  appHed  were  those  who 
gave  the  final  touches  to  the  Talmud  (Babylonian); 
they  added  various  decisions  on  many  points  which  had 
been  handed  down  from  earlier  teachers,  but  nothing 
that  they  added  was  of  their  own  composition.  They 
are  to  be  regarded  as  the  final  redactors  of  the 
Talmud.  This  period  closed,  and  with  it  the  whole 
of  what  we  have  called  the  Talmudic  period,  about 
A.D.  550,  or  a  little  later. 

It  was  a  period  which,  speaking  generally,  was 
favourable  to  the  Jews  provided  they  acquiesced  in 
what  their  rulers  insisted  upon.  Both  in  Palestine, 
under  the  Romans  (and  later  under  the  Byzantine 
Empire),  and  in  Babylonia,  under  the  Persians,  there 
was  (with  one  or  two  exceptions)  no  interference 
with  the  Jewish  religion  ;  this,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  Jewish  literature,  which  is  wholly  a  religious  litera- 
ture, was  of  paramount  importance.  The  Jewish 
religious  leaders,  especially  in  Babylonia,  had  no 
wish  to  interfere  in  the  world  of  politics ;  that  they 
should  be  left  in  peace  to  continue  their  religious 
literary  pursuits  was  their  great  desire ;  and  that 
this  was  accorded  them  is  evident  from  the  results  of 
their  labours  which  have  been  handed  down.  The 
importance  of  Palestine  as  a  Jewish  centre  continued 
to  decrease,  while  that  of  Babylon  gained  more  and 
more  in  authority  and  prestige ;  so  much  so  that 
during  our  next  period  interest  in  Palestine  becomes 
negligible.^ 

1  Schools  continued  to  exist  in  Palestine  for  several  centuries, 
but  their  authority,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Babylonian 
centres  of  learning,  was  quite  unimportant. 


THE  GEONIC  PERIOD  25 


IV 

THE   GEONIC   PERIOD 

Gaon  (plur.  Geoniui)  means  "  Excellency "  {cp. 
Ps.  xlvii.  4),  and  was  the  title  given  to  the  heads  of 
the  two  leading  Academies  in  Babylonia,  namely, 
Sura  and  Pumbeditha.  They  were  the  direct  suc- 
cessors of  the  Amoraim  and  Saboraim  ;  for,  "while 
the  Amoraim,  through  their  interpretation  of  the 
Mishnah,  gave  rise  to  the  Talmud,  and  while  the 
Saboraim  definitely  edited  it,  the  Geonim's  task  was 
to  interpret  it ;  for  them  it  became  the  subject  of 
study  and  instruction,  and  they  gave  religio-legal 
decisions  in  agreement  with  its  teachings."^  The 
Geonic  period  lasted  from  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century  to  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh, 
about  four  centuries  and  a  half;^  throughout  this 
period  the  Geonim  were  recognised  as  the  chief 
religious  authorities  throughout  Jewry — that  is  to  say, 
not  only  in  Babylonia,  but  also  in  northern  Africa, 
Spain,  and  in  those  parts  of  Europe  generally  where 
Jewish  communities  were  founded. 

The  great  world-event  of  this  period  was  the  rise 
of  Mohammedanism.  When,  early  in  the  seventh 
century,  it  commenced  its  aggressive  career  in 
Arabia,  the  Jews  were  the  first  sufferers.  There  had 
existed  here  for  many  centuries  an  obscure  Jewish 
community  which  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any 
relationship  with  either  Palestine  or  Babylonia. 
When  the  Prophet  raised  his  cry  of  "  The  Koran  or 
the  sword ! "  it  meant  bitter  persecution  for  these 
Arabian  Jews.  But  this  formed  an  exception  to  the 
general  treatment  accorded  by  the  Mohammedan 
rulers  to  the  Jews.  When  once  conquest  was  gained 
the  Caliphs  behaved  tolerantly  towards  them ;  so 
1  JE  V.  568^.  2  See  pp.  209  ff. 


26    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

long  as  there  was  no  active  opposition  the  Jews 
were  permitted  the  exercise  of  their  rehgion  without 
molestation.  The  Caliph  Omar  showed  himself  quite 
friendly  to  the  Geonhn  in  Babylonia  ;  the  schools  of 
Sura  and  Pumbeditha,  which  had  been  closed  for 
some  time  previously  by  the  Persian  government, 
were  reopened,  and  the  heads  of  these  Academies — 
known  also  by  the  name  of  Kallah^ — gave  them- 
selves again  uninterruptedly  to  the  work  which  had 
been  carried  on  by  their  predecessors.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  Geonim  during  the  early  part  ot 
this  period  was  Jehudai  ben  Nachman,  known  also 
by  the  name  of  Judah  the  Blind  ;  the  influence  of  his 
teaching  continued  long  after  his  death.  The  Geonim 
became  by  degrees  the  great  authorities  on  all 
religious  and  legal  questions,  leaving  all  political 
matters,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  functionary  called  the 
Resh  Gelutha,  the  origin  of  which  dated  from  earlier 
centuries ;  he  was  originally  an  officer  appointed 
by  the  suzerain  power.  But  during  Mohammedan 
ascendancy  the  Resh  Gelutha  lost  more  and  more  of 
his  influence,  and  finally,  in  the  tenth  century,  the 
office  ceased  to  exist. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  what  is  called  the 
Karaite  movement  arose,  a  movement  which  owed 
its  rise  indirectly  to  Mohammedan  influence.  The 
founder  of  the  sect  which  originated  this  movement 
was  named  Anan,  who  lived  early  in  the  ninth 
century.  He  and  his  followers  called  themselves 
Bene  Mikra^  ("sons  of  reading"),  and  they  pro- 
fessed to  follow  the  teaching  of  what  they  read  in 
the  Bible  only,  and  ignored  altogether  the  interpre- 
tations of  the  Rabbis  and  the  teaching  and  practice 

1  Derived  possibly  from  the  Aramaic  word  for  "garland,"  in 
reference  to  the  teachers  of  the  Academies,  who  formed  a 
"  circle  "  of  adornment ;  but  the  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure. 

^  From  the  same  root  as  the  word  Koran.  They  were  also 
called  Ananites  after  the  founder. 


THE   GEONIC  PERIOD  27 

founded  thereon.  In  fact,  it  was  a  repetition  of  that 
loyalty  to  the  Written  Law  and  repudiation  of  the 
Oral  Law  which  in  earlier  ages  had  been  championed 
by  the  Sadducees.  The  influence  of  the  Karaite  sect 
was  in  one  respect  far-reaching  ;  their  main  principle, 
i.e.  regarding  the  Scriptures  as  the  sole  authority  in 
matters  of  faith  and  practice,  entailed  on  their  part  a 
minute  examination  of  the  text  of  the  Bible  in  order 
to  be  able  to  refute  the  Rabbinical  standpoint ;  in 
order  to  counter  this  the  Rabbis  undertook  a  similar 
task.  This  critical  study  of  the  text  of  Scripture 
developed  into  a  very  keen  contest  between  the 
Rabbinical  and  Karaite  champions.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  bulk  of  the  work  of  compiling  an 
authoritative  text,  which  was  the  outcome  of  this 
contest,  must  be  assigned  to  the  initiative  of  the 
Karaites.  The  result  of  this  literary  contest  was  of 
the  highest  importance,  for  it  produced  what  is 
called  the  "  Masoretic "  text  (from  the  Hebrew 
word  Massora,  "  Tradition  ")  ;  this  is  the  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  at  the  present  day,  from  which  also 
the  Authorised  and  Revised  Versions  of  the  English 
Bible  were  made.  Apart  from  this,  the  Karaites 
exercised  but  little  influence;  they  were  never 
numerous.  It  is  a  curious  thing  that  they,  never- 
theless, continued  to  exist,  and  are  to  be  found  even 
at  the  present  day  in  Egypt  and  Eastern  Europe,  as 
well  as  in  Jerusalem. 

The  most  distinguished  personality,  from  a  literary 
point  of  view,  in  the  Geonic  period  was  Saadya. 
He  was  born  in  892,  in  the  Fayyum  (Upper  Egypt), 
but  spent  many  years  of  his  life  in  Palestine.  In 
928  he  was  appointed  Gaon  of  Sura,  and  under  his 
guidance  that  Academy  enjoyed  a  position  of  great 
importance  and  prestige,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that, 
owing  to  quarrels,  Saadya  had  for  part  of  the  time 
to  leave  Sura  and  settle  down  in  Bagdad.  Saadya 
was  not  only  the  greatest  Jewish  literary  light  of  his 


28    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

own  time,  but  also  the  first  great  writer  in  post- 
Biblical  Judaism  since  Philo;  "as  Philo  had  united 
the  Hellenic  language  and  culture  with  the  Jewish 
spirit,  so  the  language  and  civilisation  of  the  Moham- 
medan Arabs  gained  a  similar,  but  far  more  lasting, 
influence  over  the  history  of  Judaism  through  the 
writings  of  Saadiah.  He  was,  moreover,  almost 
entirely  a  creator  and  an  innovator  in  the  scientific 
fields  in  which  he  laboured,  although  much  of  his 
work,  even  that  which  was  written  in  Hebrew,  is 
now  known  only  from  citations."^  Of  his  many 
works,  exegetical,  grammatical,  Halakic,  liturgical, 
and  polemical,  the  foremost  is  the  Emiinoth  we- 
Deoth  ("  Articles  of  Faith  and  Philosophic  Dogmas  "), 
written  in  933  ;  it  is  "the  first  systematic  presentation 
and  philosophic  foundation  of  the  dogmas  of  Judaism  " 
ever  written  ;  it  appeared  originally  in  Arabic,  and 
was  twice  translated  into  Hebrew.  Ever  since  its 
publication,  and  right  up  to  the  present  day,  it  has 
commanded  the  greatest  respect  and  authority  in 
orthodox  Jewish  circles.^  He  lived  during  the  time 
of  the  Karaite  movement,  and  was  zealous  in  writing 
refutations  of  the  teachings  of  this  sect.  Important, 
too,  was  his  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  into 
Arabic,  for  it  was  "  a  potent  factor  in  the  impregna- 
tion of  the  Jewish  spirit  with  Arabic  culture."^ 

Though  not  confined  to  this  period,  but  belonging 
to  it  in  a  special  way,  is  an  element  in  Jewish 
literature  which  is  of  a  unique  character,  viz. 
the  "Responsa  Prudentum,"  or,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  form,  She'eloth  u-Teshuboth  ("Questions  and 
Answers").  These  constitute  a  collection  of  replies, 
decisions,  and  comments,  of  various  recognised 
teachers,  and  especially  of  the  heads  of  Academies, 
in  written  form,  to  questions  addressed  to  them  by 

^  JE  X.  580^. 

2  See  further  Jost,  Geschichte  des  Judentums^  ii.  279  ff.  (1857). 

3  For  details  of  his  various  works,  sttJE  x.  581  ff. 


THE  JEWS   IN   SPAIN  29 

Jewish  inquirers  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  "  These 
Responsa  constitute  a  special  class  of  Talmudic  and 
Rabbinical  literature,  which  in  form  differs  both  from 
the  commentaries  and  from  the  codifications  of  Rab- 
binical Judaism,  yet  in  content  is  similar  to  both." 
They  deal  with  subjects  of  every  imaginable  kind, 
and  though  many  of  them  are  of  a  theoretical 
character,  the  majority  are  concerned  with  practical 
matters  of  everyday  life.  The  date  of  the  earliest  is 
subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  Mishnah  ;  and 
though  many  belong  to  a  time  before  the  Geonic 
period,  it  is  during  this  period  specifically  that  the 
Responsa  were  written.  The  earliest  were  written  in 
Aramaic ;  later  on  Hebrew  and  Arabic  took  the 
place  of  Aramaic.  The  custom  continued  to  much 
later  times  all  over  Europe ;  but  these  later  Responsa 
have  neither  the  same  importance  nor  interest  as  the 
earlier  ones.  Collections  of  the  Geonic  Responsa 
were  made  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  various 
further  collections  of  them  have  been  made  since,  the 
latest  having  been  published  in  1905  by  Ginzberg, 
under  the  title  "  Genizah  Studies." 

The  Geonic  period  coincides  to  a  large  extent  with 
the  centuries  during  which  the  Jews  lived  in  much 
prosperity  under  the  Ommeyade  Caliphs  in  Spain  ;  it 
is,  therefore,  to  this  period  that  we  must  now  turn. 

V 

THE  JEWS    IN    SPAIN  ^ 

Not  without  reason  has  the  period  of  the  Jews' 
settlement  in  Spain  from  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth 
century  been  called  the  "  Golden  Age  of  the  modern 
Jews."  2  Communities  of  Jews  had  settled  in  Spain 
long  before  this  time  ;  as  early  as  the  third  century, 
so  the  evidence  shows,  they  were  already   living   in 

1  See  further,  pp.  209  fif. 

2  Milman,  History  of  the  Jews ^  iii.  267  (1829). 


30    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

the  country,  the  tombstone  of  a  Jewish  girl  bearing  a 
Latin  inscription  belonging  to  this  century  having 
been  discovered  at  Adra,^  a  small  town  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Spain.  Until  the  arrival  of  the 
Moors  the  lot  of  the  Jews  was  not  happy  ;  both  the 
civil  and  religious  authorities  oppressed  them,  though 
they  enjoyed  peaceful  intervals  at  times.  But  by  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century  a  very  different 
prospect  opened  out  before  them.  Under  the  Arab 
conquerors  the  Jewish  population  increased  greatly, 
mainly  through  immigration  from  Africa  ;  southern 
Spain  especially  became  an  asylum  for  oppressed 
Jews  from  other  parts  of  the  country.  When  the 
Caliphs  began  to  establish  themselves  in  the  splendid 
state  of  peaceful  sovereigns,  the  Jews  found  occasion 
to  exercise  their  influence  in  teaching  the  less  cul- 
tured people  among  whom  they  had  settled  the  arts 
and  luxuries  of  civilised  life.  "  The  Hebrew  literature 
was  admirably  adapted  to  the  kindred  taste  of  the 
Arabians.  The  extravagant  legends  of  the  Talmud 
would  harmonise  with  their  bold  poetical  spirit ; 
their  picturesque  apologues  were  probably  the  form 
of  instruction  in  which  the  Arab  tribes  had  ever 
delighted  to  listen  to  moral  wisdom ;  even  the 
niceties  of  their  verbal  disputes  would  not  be  without 
charm  to  their  masters,  who  soon  began  to  pay 
attention  to  the  polish  of  their  rich  and  copious  lan- 
guage." ^  During  the  reigns  of  Abd  al-Rachman, 
king  of  Cordova  (called  Al-Nasir),  and  his  son, 
Al-Chakim  (A.D.  912-961),  the  Jews  rose  to  great 
importance ;  they  devoted  themselves  whole-heartedly 
to  the  service  of  their  masters,  and  were  rewarded  by 
being  allowed  absolute  freedom  and  security,  and 
were  given  posts  of  honour  in  the  kingdom.  These 
reigns  constituted  "  a  golden  era  for  the  Spanish 
Jews  and  Jewish  science.     Abd  al-Rachman's   court 

1  Hiibner,  Inscriptiones  Hispanice  Latince,  p.  267  (1869). 

2  Milman,  op.  cit.  ill.  269. 


THE  JEWS   IN   SPAIN  31 

physician  and  minister  was  Hasdai  ben  Isaac  .  .  . 
the  patron  of  Jewish  scholars  and  poets.  During  his 
term  of  power  the  scholar  Moses  ben  Enoch  was 
appointed  Rabbi  of  Cordova,  and  as  a  consequence 
Spain  became  the  centre  of  Talmudic  study,  and 
Cordova  the  meeting-place  of  Jewish  savants!'  ^  But 
things  did  not  always  go  so  well  with  the  Jews  even 
during  this,  generally  speaking,  prosperous  period. 
The  positions  of  authority  and  responsibility  some- 
times entailed  being  involved  in  political  affairs, 
which,  on  occasion,  brought  disaster  not  only  to  a 
highly  placed  Jew,  but  also  to  his  co-religionists. 
Such  was,  for  example,  the  case  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  and  in  the  twelfth  century  during  the 
bitter  struggle  between  the  Almoravides  and  Almo- 
hades  in  southern  Spain.  Under  the  Christian  rulers 
in  Spain  the  Jews  again  lived  through  very  varied 
fortunes,  at  one  time  persecuted,  at  another  favoured. 
A  definite  turning-point  was,  however,  reached 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  under 
Ferdinand  III.,  ruler  of  the  united  kingdoms  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  and  James  I.,  king  of  Aragon  ;  owing  to 
the  power  of  the  clergy,  all  Jews  were  forced  to  wear 
the  yellow  badge  on  their  clothing.  By  this  means 
the  Jews  were  marked  and  differentiated  from  their 
fellow-subjects,  with  the  inevitable  result  that  they 
were  regarded  with  suspicion  and  contempt.  In 
1250  a  Bull  was  issued  by  the  Pope,  Innocent  IV., 
to  the  effect  that  the  Jews  might  not  build  a  new 
synagogue  without  special  permission ;  they  were 
forbidden  to  make  proselytes  under  pain  of  death 
and  confiscation  of  property ;  they  were  not  allowed 
to  associate  in  any  way  with  Christians ;  the  latter 
were  forbidden  the  use  of  any  medicine  prepared  by 
a  Jew — an  exceedingly  foolish  provision,  for  the  fore- 
most physicians  during  the  Middle  Ages  were  Jews  ; 
the  use  of  the  yellow  badge  was  again  enjoined  ;  no 
1  JE  xi.  485^. 


32    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Jew  was  allowed  to  appear  in  public  on  Good  Friday. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  this,  there  were  periods  during  which 
life  was  quite  tolerable  for  the  Jews  ;  it  depended 
mainly  upon  the  attitude  of  the  ruler  for  the  time 
being  whether  they  were  tolerated  or  persecuted. 
But  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
their  position  became  more  and  more  precarious  ; 
terrible  massacres  took  place  from  time  to  time ; 
constant  anti-Jewish  enactments  were  put  forth ; 
popular  risings  against  the  Jews  were  liable  to  take 
place  at  any  time.  By  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  (the  year  1391  was  marked  by  one  of  the 
most  bloody  massacres)  things  had  reached  such  a 
pitch  that  the  ill-treatment  of  the  Jews  brought  its 
own  revenge  upon  the  country.  "  The  persecutions, 
the  laws  of  exclusion,  the  humiliation  inflicted  upon 
them,  and  the  many  conversions  among  them  had 
greatly  injured  the  Jews,  but  with  them  suffered  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Spain.  Commerce  and  industry 
were  at  a  standstill,  the  soil  was  not  cultivated,  and 
the  finances  were  disturbed.  ...  In  order  to  restore 
commerce  and  industry  Queen  Maria,  consort  of 
Alfonso  V.  and  temporary  regent,  endeavoured  to 
draw  Jews  to  the  country  by  offering  them  privileges, 
while  she  made  emigration  difficult  by  imposing 
taxes."  ^  And  so  the  ups  and  downs  went  on  from 
decade  to  decade,  the  details  of  which  cannot  be 
recounted  here.  The  end  came  in  1492  with  the 
edict  of  expulsion  against  the  Jews  issued  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Jewish  population  in 
Spain  at  that  time  being  over  a  quarter  of  a  million 
on  a  low  estimate. 

We  have  seen  that  during  the  long  period  in  which 
the  Jews  lived  in  Spain  it  happened  not  infrequently 
that  peaceable  times  of  considerable  duration  were 
enjoyed,  and  this  was  especially  the  case  up  to  about 
the  twelfth  century.  During  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
1  JE  xi.  p.  497^. 


THE   JEWS   IN   SPAIN  33 

centuries  Spanish  Jewry  had  various  centres  of  learn- 
ing, from  which  issued  scholars  of  great  note  ;  indeed, 
all  the  foremost  Jewish  scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages 
came  from  this  country.  Among  the  large  number 
of  these,  four  stand  pre-eminent  ;  of  each  of  these  a 
(gw  words  must  be  said. 

The  earliest  is  Ibn  Gebirol  (1021-1070).  It  is 
claimed  for  him  that  he  was  the  first  teacher  of 
Neoplatonism  in  Europe,  and  that  he  exercised  a 
considerable  influence  on  medicKval  Christian  scholas- 
ticism. It  is  certain  that  he  was  one  of  the  leading 
scholars  and  authorities  in  the  Middle  Ages  on  the 
philosophy  of  Greece,  and  that  his  learning  was  far 
more  appreciated  by  Christian  than  by  Jewish  scholars, 
both  during  his  lifetime  and  in  succeeding  ages.  His 
most  important  works  are  the  Mekor  Chayyim  ("  The 
Fountain  of  Life")  and  his  ''Treatise  on  Ethics."  In 
the  former  his  main  thesis  is  that  "  all  that  exists 
is  constituted  of  matter  and  form  ;  one  and  the  same 
matter  runs  through  the  whole  universe  from  the 
highest  limits  of  the  spiritual  down  to  the  lowest 
limits  of  the  physical,  excepting  that  matter,  the 
further  it  is  removed  from  its  first  source,  becomes 
less  and  less  spiritual."  In  the  latter  work  he  attempts 
to  show  that  ethics  do  not  depend  upon  faith  or 
dogma.  Ibn  Gebirol  was  also  a  poet  of  great  renown  ; 
he  contributed  many  piyyutini  ^  to  Jewish  literature  ; 
of  these  the  most  celebrated  is  the  KetJier  Malkuth 
("  The  Kingly  Crown  ") ;  this  has  been  incorporated 
in  the  Sephardic  Ritual.  A  work  of  different 
character,  but  one  which  has  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity, is  the  Mibchar  ha-Peninim  ("  The  Choice  of 
Pearls  ") ;  this  is  a  collection  of  aphorisms,  reflections, 
and  wise  sayings,  many  of  which  are  full  of  sound 
sense  and  practical  value,  e.g.  :  "  What  is  a  test  of 
good  manners  ?     Being  able  to  bear  patiently  with 

^  Liturgical  poems  ;  see  below,  pp.  272,  279-281. 

D 


34    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM  , 

bad  ones."  Comparatively  short  as  his  Hfe  was,  j 
Ibn  Gebirol  did  much  for  his  own  and  succeeding  1 
generations.  ] 

A  contemporary  of  his  was  Judah  ha-Levi  (1085- 
1 140),  who  hkewise  enjoyed  with  his  brethren  peace 
in  the  one  country  of  Europe  in  which  at  this  | 
time  the  Jews  were  left  unmolested.  By  profession^ 
ha-Levi  was  a  physician,  but  his  activity  was* 
mainly  literary.  Like  all  the  great  Jev/ish  writers  of 
these  centuries,  he  was  both  an  Arabic  and  a  Greek 
scholar  ;  much  as  he  loved  the  ancient  classics  and 
the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks,  he  wrote  characteristically 
of  it  that  "  it  bears  not  fruit,  but  only  blossom.;' 
Judah  ha-Levi  is  best  known  as  a  religious  poet ;  a^ 
such  he  probably  stands  foremost  among  post- Biblical 
Jewish  writers.  He  was  very  deeply  imbued  with  the 
religious  spirit,  and  his  poems  breathe  forth  the  most 
earnest  piety.  More  than  three  hundred  of  his  poems 
have  been  incorporated  in  the  various  forms  of  the 
Liturgy.  But  he  was  also  a  philosophical  writer  of 
great  eminence.  His  chief  philosophical  work  is  the 
Sepher  ha-Kuzari,  written  originally  in  Arabic,  in 
about  1 140.  It  is  an  "Apologia''  of  Judaism,  which 
he  vindicates  in  opposition  to  ancient  philosophy, 
Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism.  While  not  pre- 
senting a  regular  doctrinal  system  of  Judaism,  it  deals 
with  isolated  doctrinal  subjects  ;  it  is  a  book  which 
has  always  enjoyed  a  great  vogue  in  orthodox  Jewish 
circles. 

Another  outstanding  writer  of  these  times  was 
Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (1092-1167),  who  wrote  works 
on  a  large  variety  of  subjects,  of  which  the  chief 
were  his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  the 
Yesod  Mora,  a  study  in  religious  philosophy.  But 
the  greatest  of  all  the  Jewish  mediaeval  writers  was 
Moses  Maimonides  (i  135-1204),  of  whom  the  Jews 
say  :  "  From  Moses  to  Moses  there  hath  arisen  none 
like  unto  Moses."     His  life  was  a  chequered  one,  but 


THE   JEWS   IN   SPAIN  35 

this  is  not  the  place  for  a  biographical  sketch,^  as  we 
are  here  concerned  only  with  the  literary  activity  of 
Maimonides.  Of  his  many  works  the  two  outstanding 
ones  are  the  Yad Jia-CJiazakaJi  ("The  Strong  Hand") 
and  the  Moreh  Nebiikim  ("  Guide  to  the  Perplexed  "). 
The  former,  published  in  11 80  ('its  original  title  is 
MisJineJi  Tora/i),  deals  with  the  Jewish  Law,  written 
and  oral  ;  the  faith  and  practice  of  the  Jews  from  the 
earliest  times  are  presented,  all  the  later  authorities 
on  the  subject  being  taken  into  consideration.  It  is 
a  work  of  immense  research  and  industry,  and  has 
always  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important 
Jewish  literary  productions.  But  in  originality  and 
independence  of  thought  this  work  is  far  surpassed 
by  the  Moreh  Nebukini  ;  this  was  originally  written 
in  Arabic  ;  it  was  published  in  1191,  and  soon  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew.  The  object  of  the  work  was  to 
deal  with  the  perplexities  of  religious  belief,  and  in 
doing  so  Maimonides  forsook  all  the  old  traditional 
lines  of  argument  ;  for,  being  steeped,  in  the  Aristo- 
telian world-views,  he  sought  to  spiritualise  the  secrets 
of  Holy  Writ  on  the  lines  of  Alexandrine  allegori- 
sing. That  his  book  called  forth  condemnation  on 
the  part  of  the  orthodox  cannot  cause  surprise,  for, 
traditional  Rabbinism  being  thus  entirely  set  aside 
by  Maimonides,  the  Rabbinical  authorities  of  his  day 
perceived  at  once  the  blow  to  orthodoxy  which  his 
views  involved.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  being 
condemned  and  publicly  burned,  the  works  of  Mai- 
monides received  more  and  more  recognition  ;  it  is 
probably  true  that  to-day  no  serious  Jewish  theolo- 
gian would  dispense  with  them.  Maimonides  was 
also  a  hymn-writer;  two  of  his  hymns,  Adon   Oldm 

^  See  Geiger,  Nachgelassene  Schriften,  ill,  pp.  34-96,  and  the 
excellent  article  in  JE  by  Lauterbach.  See  also  Jost,  Geschichte 
des  Jude?ithums  und  seiner  Sekten^  ii.  pp.  452  ft;  iii.  7  ff. 
(1857  .  .   .  );  and  Abrahams,  J/<:z/;«<??z/^J  (1903). 

D    2 


36    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIv^VAL  JUDAISM 

and  Yigdal}   have   been   incorporated   in   the  Jewish 
Liturgy. 

All  these  writers,  and  many  more  (for  we  have 
mentioned  only  the  most  important),  lived  in  Spain, 
and  for  the  most  part  spent  their  whole  lives  there  ; 
so  that  it  is  not  without  reason  that  this  period  is 
regarded  as  the  "  Golden  Age  "  of  Jewish  literature. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  Spain  was  for  long  the  only 
country  in  Europe  in  which  the  Jews  could  live  in 
peace.  But  the  time  came,  in  1492,  when  they  were 
driven  even  from  Spain.  They  had  been  expelled 
from  England  in  1290,  and  in  1394  from  France, 
where  the  great  commentator  Rashi  lived  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century.  They  were 
tolerated  in  parts  of  Germany,  but  this  was  only 
because  they  became,  together  with  all  their  belongings, 
the  absolute  property  of  the  Emperors,  to  be  used 
as  and  when  it  suited  them.  Ultimately,  however, 
there,  too,  life  became  unbearable  for  most  of  them, 
especially  among  the  poorer  classes,  and  they  emi- 
grated in  large  numbers  to  Poland,  only  a  few  settle- 
ments remaining  in  Germany.  Some  Italian  cities 
{e.g.  Rome  and  Venice)  also  permitted  Jews  to  settle 
down  in  them  ;  but  they  were  shut  up  in  Ghettos. 

It  was  not  until  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  that  Jewish  literature  began  to  flourish  once 
more,  especially  in  Holland,  the  foremost  name  being 
that  of  Spinoza,  the  Dutch  philosopher  (1632-1677). 
But  with  this  later  period  we  are  not  here  concerned. 

^  On  these  see  below,  p.  157. 


PART   II 

THE   RABBINICAL   LITERATURE 


PART   II 

THE    RABBINICAL   LITERATURE 
I 

THE   TARGUMS 

[Literature  :  Emanuel  Deutsch,  Literary  Remaifis^  pp.  319- 
403  (1874)  ;  Buhl,  Canon  and  Text  of  the  Old  Testament^ 
pp.  167-185  (1892)  ;  Zunz,  Die  Gottesdienstlichen  Vortrdge 
der  Juden,  pp.  65-86  (1892):  Schiirer,  GJV,  i.  pp.  147-156 
(1901);  Dalman,  Grainmatik  des  Jiidisch-Paldstinischeft  Ara- 
indisch^  pp.  11-35,  with  important  bibliography  (1905);  the  arts. 
"Targum"  in  Hastings'  DB  diwdJE,  where  a  full  bibliography  is 
given.  An  English  translation  of  the  Targums  to  the  Penta- 
teuch was  edited  by  Etheridge,  The  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
fonathan  ben  Uzziel  on  the  Pentateuch^  with  the  Fragments  of 
the  ferusalem  Targum  (1862,  1865).  The  Targums  are  printed 
by  the  side  of  the  Hebrew  text  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  in 
Walton's  Polyglot  with  Latin  translation.] 

(i)  Introductory 

Since  the  Targums  are  written  in  Aramaic,  and 
not  in  the  "  holy  tongue  "  of  the  Hebrews,  a  few  pre- 
liminary words  explaining  how  this  came  about  will 
not  be  out  of  place. 

Aramaic  was  the  language  of  the  Aramaeans,  the 
people  who,  during  most  of  the  Old  Testament 
period,  lived  in  the  country  to  which  the  Greeks 
gave  the  name  of  Syria.^  The  Aramaeans  belonged 
to   the    Semitic    race,    whose    primaeval    home    was 

1  In  the  Septuagint  the  Hebrew  Aram  is  always  rendered 
Syria.    The  name  Syria  is  first  found  in  Herodotus. 

39 


40    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Arabia ;  ^  they  issued  from  here,  in  all  probability, 
during  the  middle  of  the  second  pre-Christian 
millennium  or  thereabouts,  and  pushed  northwards 
towards  the  Euphrates  land.  Shalmanassar  I.,  king 
of  Assyria  {circa  1300  B.C.),  refers  frequently  in  the 
inscriptions  of  his  time  to  the  battles  he  was  com- 
pelled to  wage  against  the  Aramieans.  By  this  time 
they  were  constantly  overrunning  Mesopotamia,  and 
when,  soon  after,  the  Assyrian  empire  came  to  an 
end  (1275  B.C.),  they  succeeded  in  establishing  them- 
selves in  the  northern  parts  of  this  country ;  and  it 
was  not  until  over  a  century  later  that  they  were 
definitely  driven  into  their  natural  element,  the 
steppe.  This  was  the  work  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,-  the 
renewer  of  the  ancient  Assyrian  empire  ;  owing  to 
the  energy  with  which  he  combated  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Aramaeans,  he  succeeded  in  driving 
them  off  into  the  northern  parts  of  what  is  now 
called  Syria ;  at  that  time  it  formed  part  of  the 
powerful  empire  of  the  Hittites.  But  even  before 
the  time  of  Shalmanassar  I.  it  is  highly  probable  that 
Aramaean  invasions  on  a  small  scale  had  taken  place 
not  only  into  northern  Syria,  but  even  into  Palestine. 
A  distant  echo  of  some  contact  between  the  Aramaeans 
and  the  Israelites  is  to  be  discerned  in  Judg.  iii.  8, 
where  we  read  of  the  latter  having  been  in  bondage 
to  Cushan-rishathaim,  king  of  Aram-naharaim,^  for 
eight  years.  This  was  approximately  in  1200  B.C. 
Within  a  century  of  this  time  the  Aramaeans  must, 
according  to  the  data  in  the  Old  Testament,  have 
been  in  possession  of  Damascus,  the  Hauran,  and  the 
districts  east  of  the  Jordan  from  the  Lake  of  Tiberias 

1  This  opinion  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Semites  is  now 
lield  by  practically  all  authorities  ;  see,  e.g.^  Paton,  Syria  and 
Palesiine,  pp.  3  ff.,  in  "The  Semitic  Series'"  (1902). 

2  For  details  regarding  the  reign  of  this  king,  see  Hommel, 
Geschichte  Babyln7iie7is  tmd  Assyriens,  pp.  514  ff.  (1885). 

3  ///.  "Aram  of  the  two  rivers";  R.V.  therefore  renders  it 
"  Mesopotamia." 


THE  TARGUMS  41 

up  to  Mount  Hermon.  At  any  rate,  by  about 
1000  B.C.  the  Aramaeans^  had  become  a  powerful 
settled  kingdom  with  Damascus  as  its  capital.  From 
this  time  onwards,  i.e.  approximately  from  the  time 
of  David,  direct  contact  between  them  and  the 
Israelites  was  frequent.  This  is  abundantly  illus- 
trated in  the  pages  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  it 
continued  until  the  final  disappearance  of  the 
Aramaean  (or  Syrian)  kingdom,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eighth  century  B.C.,  through  the  conquests  of  the 
Assyrian  kings. 

But  though  the  Aramaeans  as  a  nation  ceased  to 
exist,  and  by  degrees  became  absorbed  by  other 
races,  the  results  of  their  influence  lasted  on  for  many 
centuries  ;  this  was  through  their  language.^  Com- 
merce must  have  been  the  most  potent  cause  at  first 
of  the  spread  of  the  Aramaic  language  among  the 
Israelites  ;  to  a  less  extent  politics.  But,  whatever 
the  various  causes,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  Aramaic 
language  came  to  be  spoken  more  and  more  all  over 
Palestine  as  time  went  on.^  There  was  a  constantly 
increasing  tendency  for  it  to  become  the  common 
language  of  the  ordinary  people,  while  Hebrew  was 
spoken  by  the  more  cultured  classes  and  became  the 
literary  language.  Added  to  this  was  the  fact  that 
from  the  comparatively  early  times  of  the  first 
inroads  of  the  Aramaeans  into  Mesopotamia  and 
neighbouring  districts  their  language  continued  to  be 
spoken  there,  with  the  result  that  during  the  Exile 
the  Jews  came  more  than  ever  into  close  touch  with 

^  We  are  referring,  of  course,  only  to  those  who  had  by 
degrees  worked  their  way  northwards  and  westwards  ;  the 
Aramaean  nation  as  a  whole  never  formed  a  political  unity.    ' 

2  cp.^  e.g..,  Gen.  :xxxi.  47,  where  Jegar-sahadiitha  (Aramaic) 
and  Galeed  (Hebrew)  occur  side  by  side  ;  both  mean  "a  heap 
of  witness." 

^  "  The  opinion  that  the  Palestinian  Jews  brought  their 
Aramaic  dialect  directly  from  Babylon — whence  the  incorrect 
name  'Chaldee'— is  untenable"  {Eitcyd.  Bibl.  i.  282), 


42    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Aramaic.  So  that,  even  while  absent  from  their  own 
land,  the  Israelites  used  the  same  language,  though  a 
somewhat  different  dialect  of  it,  to  which  they  had  been 
becoming  more  and  more  accustomed  before  the  Exile. 

Three  main  dialects  of  Aramaic  existed  from  early 
times :  Western,  or  Palestinian  ;  Eastern,  or  Baby- 
lonian ;  and  Mesopotamian.  It  is  the  two  former 
which  are  of  importance  in  the  present  connexion  ; 
for  to  one  or  other  of  these  belong  the  Aramaic 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Targums,  as 
well  as  the  two  Talmuds  and  a  great  deal  of  the 
Midrashic  literature.^ 

As  a  literary  language  Aramaic  appears  for  the 
first  time,  so  far  as  we  know,  some  time  before  400  B.C.; 
for  from  Ezra  iv.  8-22  ;  v.  1-6,  12  ;  vii.  12-26,  we  see 
that  documents  dealing  with  the  history  of  the 
Second  Temple  were  written  in  Aramaic  ;  and  a  few 
short  passages  of  the  book  itself  are  in  Aramaic 
(iv.  23  ;  V.  5  ;  vii.  13-18).-  A  century  or  so  later  we 
have  the  book  of  Daniel,  a  considerable  portion  of 
which  is  written  in  Aramaic.  "  The  employment  of 
the  two  languages  in  these  Biblical  books  well  illus- 
trates their  use  in  those  circles  in  which  and  for 
which  the  books  were  written.  In  point  of  fact,  at 
the  time  of  the  Second  Temple,  both  languages  were 
in  common  use  in  Palestine :  the  Hebrew  in  the 
academies  and  in  the  circles  of  the  learned,  the 
Aramaic  among  the  lower  classes  in  the  intercourse 
of  daily  life.  But  the  Aramaic  continued  to  spread, 
and  became  the  customary  popular  idiom.  .  .  ."  ^ 

Thus  the  knowledge  and  understanding  of  Hebrew 
were  gradually  lost  by  the  people  in  general,  and  the 

^  The  Talmuds  and  the  Midrashic  works  contain  a  good  deal 
of  Hebrew  as  well  as  Aramaic  ;  but  it  is  Neo- Hebrew,  not  the 
classical  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament. 

^  The  Aramaic  fragment  of  the  Story  of  Ahikar  in  the 
Assouan  Papyri  may  be  dated  420  B.C. 

■^  JE  ii.  69^.  For  the  general  use  of  Aramaic  during  the  New 
Testament  period,  see  Dalman,  Z?/<?  Worte  Jesu^  pp.  2  ff.  (1898). 


THE  TARGUMS  43 

Scriptures,  written  in  Hebrew,  therefore  threatened  to 
become  a  sealed  book  to  them.  To  avoid  this  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  synagogue  was  sup- 
plemented by  translating  the  Hebrew  into  the 
Aramaic  vernacular.  This  was,  of  course,  done 
orally  at  first ;  and  that  is  the  origin  of  the  Targum. 

(ii)  On  the  Targiims  generally 

The  word  Targum  (the  n  is  long)  means  "  trans- 
lation "  or  "  interpretation  "  ;  the  origin  of  the  word  is 
uncertain,  but  it  is  possible  that  it  is  related  to  an 
Arabic  root  used  in  connexion  with  forecasting  the 
future,  and  which  means  "  to  unravel."  ^  From  it 
comes  the  word  Methurgeman  -  (pass.  part,  form), 
which  occurs  in  Ezra  iv.  7  :  " .  .  .  and  the  writing  of 
the  letter  was  written  in  Aramaic  and  translated  into 
Aramaic."  ^  In  Neh.  viii.  8  we  get  what  appears  to 
be  the  earliest  reference  to  the  way  in  which  the 
Targums  first  came  into  use  :  "  And  they  read  in  the 
book,  in  the  law  of  God,  distinctly  [or  *  with  an  inter- 
pretation '] ;  and  they  gave  the  sense,  so  that  they 
understood  the  reading."  Uncertain  as  the  meaning 
of  this  text  is,^  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Rabbis 
understood  it  in  reference  to  the  Targum.''  Deutsch, 
in  this  connexion,  appropriately  quotes  Sanhedrin  2\b 
(Bab.  Talmud)^:  "Originally  the  Law  was  given  to 
Israel  in  Ibri  (Hebrew)  writing  and  the  holy  lan- 
guage. It  was  again  given  to  them  in  the  days  of  / 
Ezra  in  the  Ashuri  (Syrian)  writing  and  the  Aramaic  ' 
language." 

1  Wellhausen,  Reste  Arabischen  Heidentums,  p.  207  (1897). 

2  The  word  "  Dragoman"  is  a  corruption  of  this. 

2  The  text  is  obviously  corrupt,  but  that  does  not  affect  the 
present  point. 

^  See  Batten,  Ezra  afid  Nehemiah  (Intern.  Crit.  Com.), 
pp.  356ff  (1913). 

''  Babylonian  Talmud,  Megilla  3^:. 

^  Literary  Remains^  p.  321  (1874). 


44    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  its  beginnings  the 
Targum  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Second  Temple, 
and,  as  already  pointed  out,  it  was  originally 
delivered  orally.  The  prohibition  to  commit  the 
Targum  to  writing  was  due  to  the  fear  lest  what 
was  written  down  should  come  to  be  regarded  as  of 
canonical  authority  ;  the  written  word  and  a  written 
interpretation  of  it  might,  so  it  was  thought,  easily 
involve  the  danger  of  each  coming  to  be  regarded  as 
equally  authoritative.  For  centuries,  therefore,  the 
explanation  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Aramaic  ver- 
nacular was  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth.  But 
there  is  distinct  evidence  that  by  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era  written  Targums  were  in  existence. 
Zunz  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  "  written  Aramaic 
translations  of  most  of  the  Biblical  books  certainly 
existed  as  early  as  the  times  of  the  Hasmonseans."  ^ 
At  any  rate,  it  is  reliably  related  of  Gamaliel  I.^  that 
he  caused  a  Targum  on  the  book  of  Job  to  be  walled 
up  within  the  Temple.^  There  would  doubtless  have 
been  other  Targums  extant  before  this,  as  the  book 
of  Job  would  certainly  not  have  been  the  first  to  have 
been  translated  ;  indeed,  we  know  that  this  was  the 
case,  for  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  (see  below)  to  the 
Pentateuch  belongs  to  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,*  though  in  its  permanent  written  form 
it  belongs  to  a  somewhat  later  date,  in  all  probability. 
In  the  Mishnah  [Yadayim  iv.  5),  which  was  redacted 
by  Jehudah  ha-Nasi  at  the  end  of  the  second  or 
beginning  of  the  third  century  A.D.,  rules  regarding 
the  manner  of  writing  the  Targums  are  given  ;  the 
practice  must,  therefore,  have  been  in  vogue  long 
before  this. 

^  Die  gottesdie7istliche?i  Vortriige  der  Jiiden^  p.  65  (1892). 
"  He  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  ;  see 
Acts  V.  34,  39. 

2  Bab.  Talm.  Sabbath  w^a  (Dalman,  op.  cit.  p.  2). 
*  cp.  T.\x\vL^  op.  cit.  p.  66. 


THE  TARGUMS  45 

The  Targums,  especially  those  which  are  more 
pronouncedly  paraphrastic,  come  under  the  compre- 
hensive term  of  Rabbinical  literature,  for,  though  the 
Rabbinical  literature  proper  belongs  to  a  rather  later 
date,  the  Targums  exhibit  the  traditional  Rabbinical 
conception  of  the  written  text  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
especially  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  Targums  were 
used  primarily  for  Biblical  instruction,  but  they  also 
had  their  place  in  the  synagogal  Liturgy.  There  were 
special  rules  which  guided  the  reading  of  the  Targum 
in  the  synagogue,  and  these  varied  according  to  the 
importance  of  the  Targum  which  was  being  read. 
These  rules  are  given  in  the  Mishnah,  Megilla  iv.  4, 
where  it  says  :  "  He  who  reads  the  Torah  may  not 
read  less  than  three  verses  (at  a  time) ;  but  to  a 
Methurgeman  ^  not  more  than  one  verse  may  be  read 
(at  a  time).  But  when  the  prophetical  sections  (are 
read)  three  (verses  may  be  read  at  a  time)."  This 
means  that  in  the  ordinary  reading  of  the  Pentateuch 
not  less  than  three  verses  should  be  read  at  a  time  ; 
but  when  it  is  officially  read  in  the  synagogue,  where 
it  has  to  be  translated  into  Aramaic  for  the  congre- 
gation to  understand,  then  only  one  verse  is  read  at  a 
time  in  the  original  and  immediately  translated.  In 
the  case  of  the  prophetical  books  the  translation  is 
given  after  every  three  verses,  these  books  not  being 
so  important  as  the  Pentateuch  (Torah).  The  reading 
of  the  Hebrew  was  never  done  by  the  Methurgeman  ; 
in  the  case  of  the  Pentateuch  there  had  to  be  one 
reader  and  one  interpreter  ;  in  the  case  of  the  Pro- 
phetical books  one  reader,  but  there  might  be  more 
than  one  interpreter. 

By  a  strange  irony  of  fate,  it  was  the  written 
Targum  which  became  the  cause  of  abolishing  the 
use  of  the  Targums  in  the  synagogue.  It  was 
ignorance  of  Hebrew  which  called  the  Targum  into 

1  The  Hebrew  was  read  to  the  Methurgeman,  the  official 
translator,  and  rendered  by  him  in  Aramaic  to  the  people. 


46    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

existence  ;  but  Aramaic,  in  course  of  time,  shared  the 
same  fate  as  Hebrew  and  was  as  httle  understood. 
Even  where  Aramaic  continued  to  be  the  spoken 
language  it  altered  its  character,  so  that  the  Aramaic 
of  the  Targums,  having  become  archaic,  was  no  more 
understood.  Among  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora,  who 
did  not  know  any  Aramaic  at  all,  it  was,  of  course, 
worse.  The  rise  of  Islam  tended  to  make  Arabic 
the  language  of  the  Jews  in  the  Oriental  lands.  In 
Babylon,  however,  the  stronghold  of  Judaism  for 
many  centuries  after  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish 
state,  the  ancient  Targum  was  used  in  the  synagogue, 
in  spite  of  its  not  being  understood,  up  to  about 
A.D.  1000  ;  then  it  was  given  up,  as  had  been  the 
case  for  long  previously  among  the  Jews  elsewhere. 
Among  the  Jews  in  Europe  the  Targums  have  never 
been  in  use  in  the  synagogue  ;  ^  in  spite  of  the  desire, 
which  existed  for  centuries,  that  after  the  reading  of 
the  Law  it  should  be  translated  into  the  vernacular, 
this  was  not  actually  carried  out  until  1845,  ^.nd  then 
only  in  America  and  Germany. 

(iii)   The  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  the  Targtiins 

The  doctrine  of  God  in  the  Targums  is  based  upon 
that  of  the  Old  Testament ;  but  there  is  this  differ- 
ence, that  in  the  Targums  a  very  pronounced  trans- 
cendentalism is  taught  ;  so  much  so  that  the  thought 
of  the  divine  working  in  the  hearts  of  men  directly 
seems  to  be  almost  entirely  eliminated.  Moreover,  this 
one-sided  doctrine  of  God  is  in  so  far  antagonistic  to 
the  Old  Testament  teaching  in  that  it  altogether  does 
away  with  the  belief  in  God  as  the  God  of  history  ; 
for    the    divine    transcendence    as     taught     in     the 

1  An  exception  to  this  was  the  reading  of  the  Targum  (which 
nobody  understood)  on  the  seventh  day  of  Passover,  and  during 
the  Feast  of  Weeks,  in  France  and  Germany  (Elbogen,  Der 
judische  Gottesdienst  in  seiner  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung^ 
p.  191). 


THE  TARGUMS  47 

Targums  is  such  that  God  is  represented  as  One 
who  is  too  holy  and  of  necessity  too  separate  from 
human  affairs  to  take  any  interest  in  man  and  his 
doings.  In  accordance  with  this  teaching  the 
Targums  avoid  everything  that  appears  to  savour 
of  anthropomorphism  and  impHes  any  direct  per- 
sonal communion  between  God  and  man  ;  the  effort 
is,  therefore,  made,  for  example,  to  soften  down  or 
explain  away  everything  that  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  represented  as  a  likeness  between  God  and  man. 
An  interesting  illustration,  and  one  of  the  most 
pointed  which  could  be  given,  is  the  paraphrase  in 
the  Targums  of  the  words  :  '*  Let  us  make  man  in 
our  image,  after  our  likeness"  (Gen.  i.  26).  In  the 
earliest  Targum,  that  of  Onkelos,^  the  softening-down 
process  is  not  so  marked  as  in  the  later  Palestinian 
Targum  ;  ^  nevertheless,  the  tendency  referred  to  is 
quite  distinct,  for  it  is  implied  that  the  "  image  "  and 
"  likeness "  are  between  man  and  the  angels  rather 
than  God  Himself.  But  in  the  Palestinian  Targum 
the  paraphrase  runs  :  "  In  the  likeness  of  the  presence 
of  the  Lord  created  He  them  "  ;  the  likeness,  that  is  to 
say,  is  represented  as  being  not  to  the  Lord  Himself, 
but  to  the  divine  presence  which,  as  it  were,  comes 
between  God  and  man.  Interesting,  too,  is  the  way 
in  which  the  anthropomorphisms  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  avoided,  though  here  again  this  is  more 
characteristic  of  the  Palestinian  Targum  than  that  of 
Onkelos.  For  example,  in  Gen.  xviii.  8  it  is  said  : 
"  And  he  (Abraham)  stood  by  them  under  the  tree, 
and  they  did  eat"  ;  in  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  this  is 
given  verbally,  but  the  Palestinian  Targum  para- 
phrases :  "  And  he  served  before  them,  and  they  sat 
under  the  tree  ;  and  he  quieted  himself  (to  see)  whether 
they  would  eat "  ;  the  direct  assertion  of  their  eating 
is  avoided.     But  both  Targums  constantly  paraphrase 

^  On  these  see  the  next  section.     The  tendency  referred  to  is 
more  marked  in  the  Palestinian  Targum  throughout. 


1\ 


48    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

anthropomorphisms  by  the  expression  *' He  mani- 
fested Himself,"  or  something  like  it,  e.g.  Gen.  iii.  5  ; 
Ex.  iii.  8  ;  xi.  4,  etc.  Examples  could  be  given 
to  any  extent,  but  one  more  must  suffice :  Gen. 
xxxii.  28  runs:  "Thy  name  shall  be  called  no  more 
Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for  thou  hast  striven  with  God 
and  with  men,  and  hast  prevailed."  For  this  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos  has:  "Thy  name  shall  no  more 
be  Jacob,  but  Israel  ;  for  a  prince  art  thou  before  the 
Lord,  and  with  men  hast  thou  prevailed."  ^  In  the 
Palestinian  Targum  the  elimination  of  the  anthropo- 
morphisms is  even  more  pronounced  ;  there  it  says 
simply :  "  And  an  angel  contended  with  him  in  the 
likeness  of  a  man  "  ;  a  few  verses  further  on  the  angel 
is  spoken  of  as  Michael. 

Closely  connected  with  what  has  been  said  is  the 
doctrine  of  the  Memra  (the  Word  of  God)  in  the 
Targums.  The  central  point  here  is  that  the  Memra 
takes  up  an  intermediate  position  between  God  and 
men,  thus  making  the  divine  relationship  with  man 
indirect.  For  example,  in  Gen.  ix.  12,  13,  it  is  said  : 
"  And  God  said,  This  is  the  token  of  the  covenant  which 
I  make  between  Me  and  you  and  every  living  creature 
that  is  with  you,  for  perpetual  generations  :  I  do  set 
My  bow  in  the  cloud,  and  it  shall  be  for  a  token  of  a 
covenant  between  Me  and  the  earth  "  ;  for  this  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos  (the  Palestinian  Targum  is 
practically  the  same  2)  has  :  "  And  the  Lord  said,  This 
is  the  token  of  the  covenant  which  I  make  between 
My  Word  and  you  and  every  living  creature  that  is 
with  you,  for  perpetual  generations  :  I  do  set  My  bow 

^  It  is,  however,  interesting  to  note  that  this  rendering  comes 
close  to  that  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  :  "  .  .  .  thou 
hast  had  power  with  God,  and  thou  shalt  prevail  against  men." 

^  In  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  the  term  Meinra  is  invariably 
used  for  the  "  Word,"  while  in  the  Palestinian  and  so-called 
"  Fragment "  Targums  (on  this  latter  see  the  next  section)  the 
term  Dibbura  is  also  frequently  used  ;  both  terms  come  from 
roots  meaning  "  to  speak." 


THE  TARGUMS  49 

in  the  cloud,  and  it  shall  be  for  a  token  of  a  covenant 
between  My  Word  and  the  earth."  It  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  general  rule  that  in  the  Targums  Menira 
is  used  whenever  it  is  desired  to  avoid  the  idea  of  a 
dii^ect  relationship  between  God  and  man.  Another 
way  of  emphasising  the  divine  transcendence  in  the 
Targums  is  by  making  the  ShekinaJi  {i.e.  the  visible 
glory  which  indicates  the  divine  indwelling)  take  the 
place  of  God  Himself;  thus  while  in  Gen.  xviii.  33  it 
is  said  :  "And  the  Lord  went  His  way,  as  soon  as  He 
had  left  communing  with  Abraham,"  in  the  Targum 
of  Onkelos  this  is  paraphrased  by  the  words  :  "And 
the  glory  {Shekiiia/i)  of  the  Lord  ascended  when  it 
had  ceased  speaking  with  Abraham  "  ;  the  Palestinian 
Targum  is  identical  with  this.^ 

One  other  point  of  special  doctrinal,  interest  is  the 
teaching  of  the  Targums  concerning  the  Messiah. 
Here  the  fact  of  main  importance  is  the  stress  laid 
upon  the  kingship  of  the  Messiah  ;  indeed,  in  the 
Targums  He  is  almost  always  spoken  of  as  "King 
Messiah,"  or  else  this  is  implied,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  Targum 
of  Onkelos  to  Gen.  xlix.  10,  which  reads :  "  He  that 
exerciseth  dominion  shall  not  pass  away  from  the 
house  of  Judah,  nor  the  sceptre  from  his  children's 
children  for  ever,  until  the  Messiah  come,  whose  is 
the  kingdom  and  whom  the  nations  shall  obey."  In 
the  Palestinian  Targum  the  expression  "King 
Messiah"  is  used,  and  the  following  comment  is  there 
added  :  "  How  beauteous  is  King  Messiah,  who  will 
arise  from  the  house  of  Judah  !  He  hath  girded  His 
loins  and  hath  descended,  and  hath  set  in  array  the 
battle  against  His  adversaries.  .  .  ."  The  Targums 
offer  much  that  is  of  great  interest  on  the  subject 
of  the  Messiah,  of  which  the  following  are  examples  ; 
they  are  taken  from  the  so-called  Targum  of  Jonathan 

^  For  further  details  regarding  these  intermediate  agencies 
between  God  and  men,  see  Oesterley  and  Box,  The  Religion 
and  Worship  0/  the  Synagogue^  pp.  195-221  (191 1). 

E 


w 


50    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

(see  next  section)  to  the  Prophets :  in  reference  to 
Is.  X.  17  this  Targum  says  that  at  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  He  will  annihilate  the  Gentiles.  The  para- 
phrase of  Micah  iv.  8  runs  :  "  But  Thou,  Messiah  of 
Israel,  who  hast  been  hidden  because  of  the  sins  of 
Israel,  Thine  shall  be  the  kingdom."  In  the  paraphrase 
of  Zech.  iv.  7  the  same  Targum  says  :  "  And  he  will 
reveal  the  Messiah,  whose  name  hath  been  uttered 
from  all  time,  and  He  shall  rule  over  all  kingdoms." 

Some  general  ideas  regarding  the  Targums  and 
their  doctrinal  tendencies  will  now  have  been  gained. 
It  remains  to  enumerate  the  various  Targums  at 
present  extant,  and  to  give  a  brief  account  of  them. 

(iv)  A  Short  Account  of  the  Different  Targums 

There  exist  Targums  to  the  Pentateuch,  to  the 
Prophetical  books,  and  to  the  Hagiographa,  of  which 
the  third  category  is  the  least  important,  while  the 
other  two  are  of  great  importance  for  the  study  of 
Jewish  exegesis  and  doctrine  as  well  as  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  much  that  is  concerned  with  Christian 
origins. 

The  Targum  of  Onkelos}  There  are  various  refer- 
ences in  the  Talmud  to  Onkelos,  and  they  are  of  a 
somewhat  confusing  character.  What  may,  however, 
be  regarded  as  certain  is  that  he  was  a  proselyte  to 
Judaism,  and  that  he  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
first  Christian  century.  His  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch  into  the  Aramaic  vernacular  was,  there- 
fore, undertaken  in  all  probability  during  the  lifetime 
of  Christ,  certainly  not  long  after.  Most  authorities 
are  agreed  that  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  originally 
came  from  Palestine,  but,  owing  to  the  many  marks  of 
Babylonian  influence  which  it  contains  in  its  present 
form,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  at  some  time  or  other 
re-edited    in    Babylon,  which   became  the  centre  of 

^  Best  edition,  Targum  Onkelos^  ed.  Berliner  (Berlin,  1884). 


THE  TARGUMS  51 

Jewry  soon  after  the  break-up  of  the  Jewish  state. 
For  this  reason  this  Targum  is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
Babylonian  Targum  {Targum  Babli).  Of  all  the 
Targums  this  is  the  most  literal  in  its  translation,  and 
therefore  the  least  paraphrastic.  The  deviations  from 
this  literalness  are  most  marked  in  poetical  passages, 
e.g.  Gen.  xlix.  ;  Num.  xxiv.  ;  Deut.  xxxii.,  xxxiii.  ; 
thus  in  the  Old  Testament  Num.  xxiv.  7  runs  : 
"  Water  shall  flow  from  his  buckets,  and  his  seed  shall 
be  in  many  waters "  ;  this  is  interpreted  in  the 
Targum  in  the  following  way  :  "  The  king  anointed 
from  his  sons  shall  increase,  and  have  dominion  over 
many  nations."  Smaller  variations  from  the  Old 
Testament  occur  frequently,  and  there  are  not  a  few 
discrepancies  and  fanciful  interpretations  and  render- 
ings ;  but  in  spite  of  these  this  Targum,  in  the  words 
of  Deutsch,  "  never  for  one  moment  forgets  its  aim  of 
being  a  clear,  though  free,  translation  for  the  people, 
and  nothing  more."  He  goes  on  to  say  that  "  wher- 
ever it  deviates  from  the  literalness  of  the  text,  such 
a  course,  in  its  case,  is  fully  justified — nay,  necessitated 
— either  by  the  obscurity  of  the  passage,  or  the  wrong 
construction  that  naturally  would  be  put  upon  its 
wording  by  the  multitude.  The  explanations  given 
agree  either  with  the  real  sense  or  develop  the  current 
tradition  supposed  to  underlie  it."  ^ 

The  language  of  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  is  in 
the  main  Eastern  Aramaic,  though  the  Palestinian 
dialect  is  very  often  to  be  discerned."^  What  has  been 
said  above  as  to  the  avoidance  of  anthropomorphisms 
in  all  the  Targums  applies,  of  course,  here.  This 
Targum  became  greatly  venerated  from  early  times, 
and  manuscripts  of  it  exist  in  great  numbers.  Its 
popularity  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  men  were  urged 
to  read  it  every  Sabbath  in  their  homes.  There  can, 
moreover,  be  no  sort  of  doubt  that  it  has  exercised  a 
great  influence  upon  Jewish  exegesis.  A  Jewish  sage, 
^  op.  cit.  p.  355.  -  See  Dalman,  op.  cit.  p.  67. 

E    2 


52    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDI^.VAL  JUDAISM 

Sar  Shalom,  writing  in  the  ninth  century  about  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos,  says  :  "  The  Targum  of  which 
the  sages  spoke  is  the  one  which  we  now  have  in  our 
hands  ;  no  sanctity  attaches  to  the  other  Targumim. 
We  have  heard  it  reported  as  the  tradition  of  ancient 
sages  that  God  wrought  a  great  thing  [miracle]  for 
Onkelos  when  He  permitted  him  to  compose  the 
Targum."  ^  The  great  twelfth-century  Jewish  teacher, 
Maimonides,  also  refers  to  this  Targum  as  of  high 
importance,  the  composer  being  described  as  "  the 
bearer  of  ancient  exegetic  traditions,  and  as  a  thorough 
master  of  Hebrew  and  Aramaic."  - 

The  Palesti?iia7i  Targum.  This,  too,  is  a  para- 
phrase of  the  Pentateuch  only.  In  Jewish  literature 
it  is  usually  referred  to  as  the  Jerusalem  Targum 
{Targum  Jeriishalmt).  Formerly  it  was  known  as 
the  "  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel  on  the  Penta- 
teuch," but  this  was  owing  to  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  abbreviated  form — "  Targum  J  " — by  which  it 
was  known ;  the  "  J  "  was  thought  to  stand  for 
Jonathan,  who  was  the  author  of  the  Targum  to  the 
Prophets  (or  believed  to  have  been),  while  as  a 
matter  of  fact  it  represented  "  Jerushalmi."  It  is, 
therefore,  now  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  Targum 
of  pseudo-Jonathan."  As  will  have  been  noticed  in 
the  few  quotations  given  in  Section  iii.,  this  Targum 
is  far  more  paraphrastic  than  that  of  Onkelos  ;  it  is 
therein  that  the  main  difference  between  the  two 
chiefly  consists.  As  a  further  illustration  of  this,  one 
example  may  be  added  here  from  Gen.  iv.  8  (Targum 
Onkelos  is  practically  identical  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment), viz.  :  "  And  Cain  spake  with  Abel  his 
brother;^    and  it  came  to  pass  while  they   were    in 

^  Quoted  vciJR  xii.  59(;^.  ^  Ibid, 

^  It  is  worth  noting  that  the  Hteralness  of  the  translation  here 
is  such  that  the  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  text  is  followed.  The 
Septuagint  and  other  ancient  authorities  read  :  "  And  Cain  said 
unto  his   brother   Abel,    Let   us   go   into   the   field."     {cp.  the 


THE  TARGUMS  53 

the  field  that  Cain  rose  up  against  Abel  his  brother, 
and  slew  him."  In  the  Palestinian  Targum  we  have 
a  great  expansion  giving  the  details  of  the  conversa- 
tion between  the  brothers :  "  And  Cain  said  unto 
Abel  his  brother,  Come  and  let  us  two  go  forth  into 
the  field.  And  it  came  to  pass  when  they  two  had 
gone  forth  into  the  field,  that  Cain  answered  and 
said  unto  Abel,  I  perceive  that  the  world  was  created 
in  goodness,  but  it  is  not  governed  according  to  the 
fruit  of  good  works,  for  there  is  respect  of  persons  in 
judgement ;  therefore  it  is  that  thy  offering  hath 
been  accepted,  and  mine  not  accepted  with  good 
will.  Abel  answered  and  said  unto  Cain,  In  good- 
ness was  the  world  created,  and  according  to  the 
fruit  of  good  works  is  it  governed  ;  and  there  is  no 
respect  of  persons  in  judgement ;  but  because  the 
fruits  of  my  works  were  better  than  thine,  my 
oblation  hath  been  accepted  with  good  will  before 
thine.  Cain  answered  and  said  unto  Abel,  There  is 
neither  judgement,  nor  judge,  nor  another  world  ;  nor 
will  good  reward  be  given  to  the  righteous,  nor 
vengeance  be  taken  on  the  wicked.  And  Abel 
answered  and  said  unto  Cain,  There  is  a  judgement, 
and  there  is  a  judge,  and  there  is  another  world  ;  and 
a  good  reward  is  given  to  the  righteous,  and  ven- 
geance is  taken  on  the  wicked.  And  because  of 
these  words  they  had  contention  there  in  the  field. 
And  Cain  rose  up  against  Abel  his  brother,  and 
drave  a  stone  into  his  forehead,  and  slew  him." 

As  to  the  date  of  this  Targum  there  are  some 
clear  indications  ;  its  comparatively  late  date  is 
shown,  e.g.^  by  the  mention  of  Constantinople  in 
Num.  xxiv.  19,  24;  but  more  important  is  that  in 
Gen.  xxi.  21.  Mohammed's  daughters  Hadidiah  and 
Fatima  are  mentioned,  showing  that  the  date  must 
be  later  than  the  time  of  Mohammed ;  it  cannot  well 

Palestinian  Targum  given  below.)  It  is  quite  obvious  that 
something  has  fallen  out  of  the  Hebre\Y  text. 


54    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

have  reached  its  final  form  before  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century.  Its  language  differs  from  that  of 
Targum  Onkelos  with  its  approximation  to  Biblical 
Aramaic,  the  Palestinian  Targum  being  written  in 
the  idiom  of  the  common  people  of  Palestine.  In 
spite  of  its  late  date,  this  Targum  is  valuable  on 
account  of  the  considerable  quantity  of  ancient 
material  embodied  in  it;  "it  is  one  of  those  late 
compilations  in  which  the  more  ancient  and  the  later 
tradition  is  stored  ;  it  forms,  when  used  with  critical 
caution,  a  very  abundant  source  for  the  presen- 
tation of  the  religious  conceptions  of  old  Palestinian 
Judaism."^ 

The  ^^ Fragment''  Targum.  This  work,  which  also 
deals  with  the  Pentateuch,  is  closely  connected  with 
the  foregoing  ;  it  has  received  its  name  in  modern 
times,  as  it  consists  of  isolated  pieces.  It  represents, 
in  all  probability,  a  kind  of  preparatory  work  for  the 
developed  Palestinian  Targum,  but  it  often  differs 
considerably  from  this.  The  two  are  of  different 
authorship,  but  of  the  authors  nothing  is  known.  A 
striking  characteristic  of  both  is  the  developed 
angelology  they  exhibit. 

The  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel.  This  is  a 
paraphrase  of  the  Prophetical  books  ;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  among  these  are  included  what  are 
called  the  "  former  prophets,"  i.e.  the  books  of  Joshua, 
Judges,  I  and  2  Samuel,  i  and  2  Kings,  and  the 
"  latter  prophets,"  i.e.  the  books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  the  Minor  Prophets.  This  Targum  as 
we  have  it  now  belongs  possibly  to  the  third  century 
A.D. ;  some  scholars  place  it  a  century  later.  That 
it  is  subsequent  in  date  to  the  Targum  Onkelos  is 
evident,  since  various  passages  are  quoted  verbatim 
from  it.2     Jonathan  ben  Uzziel^  was  a  pupil  of  the 

^  \<€^^x^Juedische  Theologie^  p.  xxi.  (1897). 

*  Zunz,  op.  cit.  p.  67,  note.  ■  ^ 

^  He  was  such  an  ardent  student  of  the  Law  that  the  Talrhud 


THE   TARGUMS 


55 


celebrated  Hillel ;  his  name  is  attached  to  this 
Targiim  because  there  are  good  grounds  for  beHeving 
that  he  was  the  original  author  who  laid  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  this  Targum  in  later  years  was  built 
up.^  This  is  also  borne  out  by  the  language,  which 
is  Eastern  Aramaic,  showing  that  in  its  present 
redacted  form  it  belongs  to  Babylon,  not  Palestine, 
Jonathan's  home.  This  Targum  differs  greatly  from 
that  of  Onkelos  both  in  its  theological  standpoint 
and  in  its  free  paraphrase ;  in  fact,  it  is  rather  a 
Haggadic  commentary  than  a  Targum,  and  contains 
an  immense  amount  that  is  of  interest  from  the  point 
of  view  of  folk-lore.  Deutsch  goes  so  far  as  to  say 
that  '*  the  Semitic  fairy  and  legendary  lore  which  for 
the  last  two  thousand  years — as  far  as  we  can  trace 
it — has  grown  up  in  East  and  West  to  vast  glittering 
mountain-ranges  is  to  a  very  great  extent  to  be 
found,  in  embryo  state,  so  to  say,  in  this  our 
Targum."  2  Somewhat  of  an  exaggeration  as  this 
is,  there  is  no  sort  of  doubt  that  it  is  largely  true ; 
the  tales  of  wonder  which  it  contains,  and  the 
activities  of  angels  of  which  it  tells,^  certainly  seem 
in  numerous  cases  to  be  the  basis  of  many  of  our 
fairy  stories. 

The  Targums  to  the  Hagiographa.  There  are  three 
classes  of  these  :  first,  the  Targums  on  the  Psalms, 
the  Proverbs,  and  Job.  These  all  belong  approxi- 
mately to  the  same  period,  viz.  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century    A.D.,   and    from    their    similar    style    would 

{Baba  Bathra  134^,  Siikka  2%a)  relates  of  him  that  "when  he 
sat  studying  the  Torah,  every  bird  that  flew  over  his  head  was 
burned,"  the  reason  being  that  many  angels  gathered  around 
him  in  order  to  hear  the  words  of  the  Law  which  proceeded 
from  his  mouth  (Weber,  op.  cit.  p.  xx). 

1  For  details  see  Deutsch,  op.  cit.  pp.  364  ff. 

2  op.  cit.  p.  374.  .         ,        .         ,  .  c  1 

'^  The  idea,  e.g.,  of  Elijah  heanng  the  voices  of  angels 
singing  in  silence  (paraphrase  to  i  Kings  xix.  11-13)  is 
interesting. 


56    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

appear  to  have  come  from  the  hand  of  one  author. 
They  are  all  believed  to  have  originated  in  Syria. 
The  Targums  to  the  Psalms  and  Proverbs  have  not 
much  that  is  paraphrastic  ;  they  are  mainly  trans- 
lations, and  not  of  much  value.  That  on  Job  is  more 
interesting,  and  contains  much  Haggadic  material. 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  existence  of  a 
Targum  on  Job  in  much  earlier  times  ;  what  relation 
there  is  between  these,  if  any,  it  is,  of  course,  impos- 
sible to  say  now. 

Tlie  Targums  to  the  Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lanien- 
tations,  Esther,  and  Ecdesiastes  belong  to  another 
class,  for  they  can  scarcely  be  called  Targums  in  the 
ordinary  sense  ;  they  are  picturesque  commentaries, 
the  commentary  having  often  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  the  text.  An  excellent  English  translation  of 
the  Targum  to  the  Song  of  Songs  has  been  edited  by 
Prof  H.  Gollancz  (1908),  and  it  gives  one  an  intimate 
idea  of  this  class  of  Targum  ;  it  contains  much  of 
great  interest. 

Lastly,  there  are  the  Targinns  to  Daniel,  i  and  2 
CJirotiicles,  and  Ezra ;  these,  too,  are  comparatively 
late  in  date  ;  they  are  of  minor  importance. 

The  great  value  of  the  Targums,  though  this 
applies  mainly  to  those  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
Prophetical  books,  is  that  they  constitute  a  most 
important  source  for  the  early  phases  of  Judaism 
before  it  became  stereotyped  and  hardened  into 
Rabbinical  Judaism  proper.  They  are,  therefore, 
exceedingly  interesting,  and  also  important,  for  the 
study  of  the  New  Testament,  and  not  infrequently 
throw  light  on  this.  For  the  history  of  Jewish 
exegesis  they  are,  of  course,  invaluable. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  57 


II 

THE    MIDRASHIM 

[Literature:  (selected)  :  Hoffmann,  Ztir  Ewleitun^  in 
die  Halachischeii  Midraschim  (1886);  Zunz,  Die  gotiesdienst- 
licheit  Vortrdge  der  Jtideii^  passim^  especially  pp.  37-61, 
87-102,  19J-283  (1892)  ;  Weber,  Jtiedische  Theologie  .  .  .,  pp. 
xxiv-xxx  (1897;  ;  Bacher, /J/>  aeltcste  Terniinologiederjiidischen 
Schriftaiislegung  (1899)  ;  Schiirer,  G]V^  i.  pp.  138-146,  ii. 
pp.  392-414,  where  a  full  bibliography  will  be  found  (1901)  ; 
Oesterley  and  Box,  The  Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Syna- 
gogue^ pp.  77-100  (191 1)  ;  Theodor's  art.  in/is  viii.  548-580.] 

(i)  Introdiictofy 

The  word  MidrasJi  (plur.  MidrasJiini)  is  a  Biblical 
one,  though,  it  is  true,  it  occurs  but  twice  in  the  Bible, 
viz.  2  Chron.  xiii.  22  ;  xxiv.  27.  It  comes  from  a 
root  {darash)  meaning,  in  the  first  instance,  "  to  resort 
to,"  "  to  seek  out,-'  which  occurs  frequently  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  e.g.  Deut.  xii.  5  :  Btit  unto  the  place 
ivhicJi  the  Lord  your  God  shall  choose  out  of  all  your 
tribes  to  put  His  ?taine  there,  even  unto  His  habitation 
{i.e.  the  place  where  He  dwells)  shall  ye  seek  {darash), 
and  thither  shall  thou  come.  Later  this  root  came  to 
be  used  of  searching  out,  or  studying,  the  Law,  e.g. 
Ezra  vii.  1 2  :  Es?'a  had  set  his  heart  to  seek  {darash) 
the  Lazv  of  the  Lord.  When  the  Neo-Hebraic  word 
MidrasJi  was  formed  it  meant  the  searching  out,  or 
investigating,  of  a  book  with  a  view  to  its  interpreta- 
tion ;  then,  by  a  very  natural  developinent,  the  word 
was  applied  to  the  result  of  such  investigation.^     In 

'  In  speaking  of  the  variety  of  meanings  attaching  to  different 
Hebrew  technical  terms  Deutsch  says  :  "Thus  Midrash,  from 
the  abstract  '  expounding,'  came  to  be  applied,  first  to  the 
'exposition'  itself— even  as  our  terms  'work,'  'investigation,' 
'  inquiry,'  imply  both  process  and  product  ;  and  finally,  as  a 
special  branch  of  exposition — the  legendary— was  more  popular 
than  the  rest,  to  this  one  branch  only  and  to  the  books  that 
chiefly  represented  it"  {Literary  Remains,  p.   13  [1874]).     We 


58    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

the  Targums  and  in  the  Talmud  the  root  means 
"to  examine,"  then  "  to  expound,"  or  "to  interpret," 
and  finally  "  to  teach  "  and  "  to  lecture  "  on,  the  Law 
and  on  the  Old  Testament  generally.  There  is  also  the 
technical  word  darslian,  from  the  same  root,  which 
means  an  "  interpreter  "  of,  or  "  lecturer  "  on,  the  Law. 

This  searching  out  of  the  Law  was  undertaken  with 
the  object  of  discovering  hidden  meanings,  or  such  as 
could  be  derived  by  implication,  a  very  different 
thing  from  the  primary  and  obvious  sense  of  a  passage 
which  could  be  readily  understood  by  the  simple, 
"  In  contradistinction  to  literal  interpretation,  sub- 
sequently Q'dXX^di  peshat}  the  term  MidrasJi  designates 
an  exegesis  which,  going  more  deeply  than  the  mere 
literal  sense,  attempts  to  penetrate  into  the  spirit  of 
the  Scriptures,  to  examine  the  text  from  all  sides, 
and  thereby  to  derive  interpretations  which  are  not 
immediately  obvious."  ^ 

The  earliest  evidence  that  we  have  of  this  deeper 
searching  of  the  Scriptures  is  contained  in  Neh.  viii. 
2-8,  where  it  is  told  how  Ezra  the  Scribe,  together 
with  a  number  of  other  Scribes^  who  are  mentioned 
by  name,  "  caused  the  people  to  understand  the  Law  ; 
and  the  people  stood  in  their  place.  And  they  {i.e. 
the  Scribes)  read  in  the  book,  in  the  Law  of  God, 
distinctly  (R.V.  marg.  '  with  an  interpretation  '),  so 
that  they  {i.e.  the  people)  understood  the  reading." 
The  passage  is  obscure  and  the  text  is  certainly  not 
in  order,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  "  interpretation  "  gave 
the  people  something  more  than  the  literal,  primary 
meaning  which   could    be   easily   grasped.     We   are, 

shall  come  to  deal  presently  with  this  one  branch  and  the*books 
represented  by  it. 

^  i.e.  "  simple  "  ;  cp.  the  word  Pes/u/fa,  the  Syriac  equivalent 
to  the  Latin  "  Vulgate."  2  j£  y\Y\.  s^U. 

^  They  are  called  Levites  in  the  text,  but  their  procedure 
shows  that  they  were  Sopkerlm,  or  Scribes,  as  well.  The  earlier 
Sopherim  (from  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just)  were  all  members  of  the 
Levitical  priesthood. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  59 

therefore,  justified  in  regarding  this  passage  as  re- 
ferring to  the  subject  under  discussion,  and  as  seeing 
in  it  the  earliest  reference  to  Midrash  in  its  abstract 
sense.  The  explanations  and  comments  which  these 
Sopheriin  gave  were  not  written  down,  but  were 
transmitted  by  word  of  mouth  from  teacher  to  pupil. 
But  there  was  another  type  of  Midrash  which  ivas 
written  down  in,  comparatively  speaking,  very  early 
times.  This  is  proved  by  a  reference  to  2  Chron.  xiii. 
22  ;  xxiv.  27  ;  in  the  former  of  these  passages  the 
Chronicler  speaks  of  a  "  commentary  of  the  prophet 
Iddo  "  ;  in  the  latter  he  refers  to  the  "commentary  of 
the  book  of  Kings."  In  both  cases  the  Hebrew  word 
for  "  commentary "  is  Midrash.  So  that  at  least  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C.^  we  find 
the  Chronicler  utilising  written  historical  Midrashic 
works  as  sources  for  his  history.  Their  historical 
value  was  almost  certainly  insignificant,  but  that 
is  immaterial  from  our  present  point  of  view  ;  the 
important  thing  is  that  these  Midrashim  were  already 
in  existence  as  written  documents  in  the  third 
century  B.C.,  and  were  regarded  as  sufficiently  authori- 
tative to  be  consulted  in  compiling  a  history  of  the 
nation.  The  character  of  these  written  Midrashim 
can,  to  some  extent,  be  gathered  by  comparing  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  with  Chronicles  ;  for  this 
latter  itself  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  Midrash  (in 
certain  passages)  on  the  former  ;  instructive  examples 
of  this  are:  i  Chron.  xv.  i-xvi.  43  compared  with 
2  Sam.  vi.  12-20;  i  Chron.  xxii.  2-19  with  2  Sam. 
vii.  1-3,  13  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  i-v.  i  with  i  Kings  viii.  ; 
2  Chron.  xii.  1-16  with  I  Kings  xiv.  21  ff. ;  2  Chron. 
xiv.  9-15  with  I  Kings  xv.  23  ;  and  many  others.^ 

^  Most  modern  authorities  are  agreed  that  the  books  of  the 
Chronicles  were  compiled  about  250  B.C.  or  slightly  earHer. 

^  A  more  developed  form  of  this  type  of  Midrash  can  be 
seen,  e.^.^  by  comparing  the  book  of  Jubilees  with  Genesis,  or 
the  additions  to  Esther  with  the  canonical  book  of  Esther. 


6o    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

In  quite  early  times,  therefore,  we  meet  with  two 
types  of  Midi-ash  ;  Neh.  viii.  2-8  refers  to  interpreta- 
tions of  the  Law  given  by  the  Sopherim,  and  the  two 
passages  2  Chron.  xiii.  22  ;  xxiv^  27  refer  to  written 
historical  MidrasMin.  In  one  case  explanation  of 
the  Law,  in  the  other  narrative  expansion,  form  the 
content  of  the  Midrashic  comment.  In  each  it  is  a 
case  of  searching  with  the  object  of  interpreting  ; 
in  the  former  the  interpretation  of  the  Law  is  meant 
to  give  guidance,  in  the  latter  the  narrative  is  intended 
for  edification.  As  these  two  elements  give  the  key- 
notes to  the  entire  body  of  Midrashic  works  which 
subsequently  came  into  being,  it  will  be  well  to  say 
a  word  about  them  before  speaking  of  these  Midrashic 
works  themselves. 

(ii)  MidrasJi  Halakah  and  Midrash   Haggadah 

The  vast  Midrashic  literature  may  broadly  be 
divided  into  two  main  classes  :  the  Halakic  (^Midrash 
Halakah)  and  the  Haggadistic  {MidrasJi  Haggadah). 
The  earliest  written  Midrashiin  which  have  been 
handed  down,  the  Mekilta,  Sifra,  and  Si/re,  which 
in  their  oldest  elements  go  back  to  the  second 
century  A.D.,  exhibit  a  mixed  character  containing 
Haggadah  interspersed  with  Halakah.  But  they  may 
be  regarded  as  predominantly  Halakic.  The  great 
mass  of  the  Midrashic  literature,  apart  from  these 
examples,  is  essentially  Haggadistic  in  character. 
The  term  Halakah  (  =  "rule,"  "binding  law")  is 
applied  to  the  traditionally  received  rules  of  practice 
which  were  of  a  binding  or  legal  character.  This 
legal  element  in  the  Oral  Law,  together  with  the 
Rabbinical  discussions  and  decisions  which  depend 
upon  it,  are  embodied  in  the  Mishnah,  the  Talmuds, 
and  the  compendiums  of  Rabbinical  Law  based  upon 
the  latter.  The  method  of  the  Talmud  is  to  group 
and  classify  the  various  Halakoth,  and  to  comment 


THE   MIDRASHIM  6i 

on  them,  tradition  by  tradition,  giving  the  Scriptural 
proofs  for  each,  and  otherwise  elucidating  them.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Halakic  Midrashiin  are  cast  in 
the  form  of  exegetical  commentaries  on  particular 
books  of  the  Bible,  viz.  part  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy.  The  Scriptural  text 
determines  the  order  of  the  exposition,  and  the  various 
Halakoth  dealing  with  the  traditionally  received  rules 
of  life  and  ritual  are  deduced  from  the  Biblical  text 
directly.  The  resultant  Midj^askim  may  be  regarded 
as  due  to  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  of 
the  Law  to  justify  in  a  popular  way  the  Halakah 
against  the  objection  of  the  Sadducees. 

Of  course,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  Haggadistic 
material  scattered  about  the  pages  of  the  Talmud, 
and  this  has  been  worked  up  in  separate  form  and 
embodied  for  the  most  part  in  the  Haggadic  MidrasJi. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  term  Midrash  Halakah  is 
applied  not  merely  to  the  verification  of  currently 
received  practice  from  the  text  of  Scripture,  but  also 
to  the  development  of  new  Halakoth  and  legal  enact- 
ments from  the  Biblical  text. 

An  example  of  the  method  employed  will  serve  to  illustrate 
what  has  just  been  said.  Thus,  with  reference  to  the  verse 
(Ex.  xii.  4)  :  And  if  the  household  be  too  little  for  a  lamb,  then 
shall  he  and  his  7ieighbour  fiext  unto  his  house  take  ofte  accordi7ig 
to  the  number  of  the  souls.  The  Midrash  Mekilta,  ad.  loc, 
comments  as  follows  :  '■'■  Accordi?ig  to  the  7iumber  (nDDn)  of  the 
souls.  The  word  hddo  is  to  be  understood  only  as  (meaning) 
number,  viz.  that  one  must  slaughter  it  (the  lamb)  according  to 
the  number  (of  persons)  assigned  to  it.  But  if  one  have 
slaughtered  it  not  for  the  number  (of  persons)  assigned  to  it, 
one  has  transgressed  a  commandment."  In  other  words,  the 
Passover  lamb  cannot  be  legally  slaughtered  till  the  slaughterer 
is  aware  of  the  number  of  persons  who  are  going  to  partake  of 
it.  This  example  is  taken  from  the  older  and  simpler  Halakah, 
based  upon  a  simple  and  direct  exegesis.  The  later  Halakah  is 
more  complicated  and  artificial  in  its  methods.^     Though  the 

1  For  details  see  the  article  "  Midrash  Halakah "  in  the 
Jewish  Encycl.  viii.  571. 


62    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

line  between  independent  collections  of  Halakoth  as  contained 
in  the  Mishnab  and  Tosefta  and  tbe  Halakic  Midrashim  is  not 
always  sbarply  drawn  (^e.g.  many  sections  in  tbe  iMisbnab  and 
Tosefta  are  Midrasbic  Halakotb,'  and  on  tbe  otbcr  band  tbe 
Halakic  Midrashim  sometimes  contain  independent  Halakotb, 
witbout  reference  to  tbe  Scriptural  text  in  support  -),  yet  on  tbe 
wbole  tbe  broad  distinction  remains  tbattbe  Halakic  Midjuishim 
are  in  form  exegetical,  following-  tbe  text  of  certain  books  of 
Scripture.  Tbe  occasional  confusion  between  tbe  two  forms  is 
explained  by  tbe  fact  tbat  tbe  redactors  of  tbe  two  kinds  of 
collections  borrowed  from  eacb  otber. 

The  term  Haggadah  means  primarily  "  narration," 
''  telling,"  and  in  its  original  application  as  a  technical 
term  connoted  the  recitation  or  teaching  of  Scrip- 
ture ;  cf.  the  formula,  frequently  found  in  ancient 
Rabbinical  literature,  ^IP^n  TZIO'  "  ^^  Scripture 
teaches."  Thus  Haggadah  probably  had  at  first  a 
general  application,  "  but  at  an  early  date  was 
restricted  to  denote  a  non-Halakic  explanation."  It 
thus  came  to  mean  the  exegesis  of  Scripture,  not 
included  in  the  Halakic,  of  a  freer  and  more  edifying 
tendency,  with  stories  and  illustrative  matter,  drawn 
from  popular  custom,  tales,  and  beliefs.  In  the 
MidrasJi  Haggadah  it  expressed  itself  in  a  rich 
development,  first  in  the  form  of  homiletic  com- 
mentary on  Biblical  books,  and  then  independently 
as  finished  homily  or  popular  discourse,  not  primarily 
exegetical  in  character.  The  popular  preacher  who 
delivered  homiletic  discourses  in  the  synagogue  of 
a  Haggadic  character  was  termed  Maggidy  i.e.  "  ex- 
pounder of  Haggadah!'  The  characteristic  features 
of  this  kind  of  oratory  have  been  well  summed  up  by 
Zunz  :  "  The  Haggadah,  which  is  intended  to  bring 
heaven  down  to  the  congregation,  and  also  to  lift 
man  up  to  heaven,  appears  in  this  office  both  as  the 
glorification  of  God  and  the  comfort  of  Israel. 
Hence    religious    truths,    maxims,    discussions    con- 

^  e.g.  Berakotb  i.  3,  5. 

'^  e.g.  Sifra  Wayyi'kra  Hobah  i.  9-13  (ed.  Weiss,  p.  16  c^,  //). 


THE   MIDRASHIM  '  63 

cerning  divine  retribution,  the  inculcation  of  the  laws 
which  attest  Israel's  nationality,  descriptions  of  the 
past  and  future  greatness,  scenes  and  legends  from 
Jewish  history,  comparisons  between  the  divine  and 
Jewish  institutions,  praises  of  the  Holy  Land,  encou- 
raging stories  and  comforting  reflections  of  all  kinds, 
form  the  most  important  subjects  of  these  discourses."  ^ 
The  Haggadic  literature  thus  reflects  the  highest  and 
deepest  thoughts  of  the  Jewish  teachers  on  religion 
and  ethics  embodied  in  popular  form.  Its  aim  was 
to  work  upon  the  mind,  conscience,  and  heart  of  the 
Israelite  in  such  a  way  as  to  inspire  a  passion  for 
religion  ;  and  it  sought  to  do  this  by  using  the  past 
and  present  experiences  of  the  race  as  symbols  and 
illustrations  designed  to  justify  the  ways  of  God  to 
man,  and  to  kindle  enthusiasm  and  devotion  for  the 
ideals  of  Israel's  religion,  and  a  passionate  belief  in 
Israel's  vocation  and  destiny. 

The  literature  in  which  the  Haggadah  is  embodied, 
i.e.  the  Haggadic  Midrashic  literature,  is  of  vast 
extent,  and  its  production  in  literary  form  covers  a 
considerable  period  of  time.  It  may  be  said  to  have 
flourished  from  the  second  to  the  tenth  centuries  A.D. 
But  the  beginnings  of  the  Haggadah  go  back  to  a 
much  earlier  period.  Much  material  of  this  kind  is 
contained  in  the  Apocryphal  and  Pseudepigraphical 
literature,  and  it  can  be  traced  in  the  works  of 
Josephus  and  Philo.  Its  richest  period  of  develop- 
ment may  be  placed  in  the  period  when  the  Mishnaic 
and  Talmudic  literature  grew  up,  i.e.  between  A.D.  100 
and  500.  The  compilations  which  were  produced 
subsequently  were  largely  in  the  nature  of  a  re- 
shaping of  mateiial  already  in  existence  (the  epoch 
of  the  revisers  and  collectors). 

For  a  time  (during  the  third  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century  A.D.)  "  the  masters  of  Halakah 
were  also  the  representatives  of  the  Haggadah  :   but 
^  Cited  <9^.  cit.  ibid. 


64    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

side  by  side  with  them  appeared  the  Haggadists 
proper  (ni^lt^  ''T'i^l)'  ^^^^  subsequently  became  more 
and  more  prominent,  attracting  with  their  discourses 
more  hearers  than  the  .Halakists.  The  highest 
product  of  the  Haggadah,  the  pubHc  discourse 
drawing  upon  all  the  arts  of  Midrashic  rhetoric — 
sentence,  proverb,  parable,  allegory,  story,  etc. — now 
received  its  final  form."  ^  Examples  of  the  latter, 
furnished  with  proems  and  properly  constructed,  can 
be  seen  best  in  the  Pesikta  homilies  {Pesikta  de  Rab 
Kahana  and  Pesikta  Rabbati)  and  in  the  TancJmma 
collection  (for  details  of  these  works,  see  below). 

(iii)  A  Short  Account  of  the  Different  Midrashic 
Works 

We  can  now  proceed  to  enumerate  the  more  impor- 
tant Midrashic  works,  and  to  give  a  short  account  of 
them.  In  his  articles  on  the  MidrasJiim  in  the 
Jewish  Encyclopcedia  Theodor  classifies  the  whole 
body  of  these  writings  in  the  following  way : 

A.  Midrash  Haggadah:  Mekilta ;  Sifra ;  Si/re  to 
Numbers  ;   Sifre  to  Deuteronomy. 

B.  The  earliest  exegetical  Midrashim  :  Bereshith 
Rabbah  ;  Ekah  Rabbati. 

The  homiletic  Midrashim:  Pesikta;  Wayyikra 
Rabbah;  Tanchnma  Yelammede^iii  ;  Pesikta  Rabbati ; 
Debarifu  Rabbah ;  Bemidbar  Rabbah ;  Shemoth 
Rabbah ;  Aggadath  Bereshith ;  We-Hizhir  {Hash- 
kem). 

The  later  exegetical  Midrashim  :  Shir  ha-SJiirini 
Rabbati;  Midrash  Ruth  ;  Midrash  Koheleth  ;  Midrash 
Megillath  Esther. 

The  other  exegetical  Midrashim  not  dealing  with 
the  Pentateuch:  Midrash  Shemuel ;-  Midrash  Mishlc  ; 
Midrash  Tehillim ;  MidrasJi  Yeshayah ;  Midrash 
Yonah  ;  Midrash  lyyob. 

^  op.  cit.  ibid. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  65 

Special  Haggadic  Midrashim :  Pirke  de  Rabbi 
Eliezer ;  Seder  Elijahii  ;  Yalkut  Shimeoni ;  Yalkut 
ha-Makir  ;  Midrash  ha-  Gadol. 

A  number  of  other  small  and  unimportant  Mid- 
rashic  writings  are  enumerated  ;  but  they  do  not  call 
for  notice  here. 

This  scientific  classification  will  be  found  valuable 
for  reference.  For  readers,  however,  who  are  entirely 
unfamiliar  with  this  class  of  literature  it  will  probably 
be  found  useful  if,  in  giving  a  short  account  of  the 
different  works,  we  enumerate  them  under  the 
English  names,  and  in  the  usual  order,  of  the 
Biblical  books  with  which  they  deal.  In  most  cases 
a  Midrash  deals  with  one  specific  Biblical  book  ;  but 
some  of  them  include  comments,  etc.,  on  two  or  more 
books.  We  will  deal  with  the  former  first  as  being, 
generally  speaking,  though  not  always,  older  and 
more  important. 

A.  Genesis.  Quite  one  oi  the  most  important  of 
all  the  Midrashic  writings  is  that  called  BeresJdth 
Rabbah}  the  great  Midrash  on  Genesis.  It  is 
valuable  on  account  both  of  its  age  and  of  its 
contents.  It  belongs  approximately  to  the  sixth 
century  A.D.,  but  contains  materials  of  much  earlier 
date.  Indications  pointing  to  its  date  are  the  follow- 
ing :  Authoritative  Babylonian  teachers  are  cited 
who  lived  during  the  latter  years  of  the  third  century 
A.D.  Further,  not  only  does  it  contain  a  story  about 
the    Emperor    Diocletian,'^    but    Rabbis    who    lived 

^  ReresJnth  (=  "  In  the  beginning  ")  is  the  Hebrew  name  of 
the  book  of  Genesis.  Rabbah  (="  great")  is  added  as  this 
Midrash  belongs  to  the  great  collection  of  Midrashim^  called 
"  Midrash  Rabbah,"  which  comprises  Midrashim  on  each  of 
the  books  of  the  Pentateuch  and  on  each  of  the  five  "Scrolls," 
as  they  are  called,  viz.  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Eccles-  \\ 

iastes,  Esther.     Best  text,  the  critical  edition  issued  in  parts 
and  edited  by  J.  Theodor  (Berlin),  not  yet  complete. 

'^  In  §  63  it  is  said  that  in  his  earlier  years  he  lived  as  a 
swineherd  in  Tiberias. 

F 


// 


66    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

during  his  reign,  and  earlier,  are  frequently  men- 
tioned by  name.  Again,  a  list  of  a  succession  of 
seven  Rabbis  is  enumerated,  beginning  with  Rabbi 
Akiba  (he  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  A.D.)  and  Rabbi  Jehudah  ha-Nasi  (second 
half  of  the  second  century  A.D.),  of  each  of  whom  it 
is  said  that  at  the  death  of  his  predecessor  a  sun 
went  down  and  a  sun  rose  ;  the  meaning  is  that  when 
God  permits  the  sun  of  a  righteous  man  to  set  {i.e. 
when  he  dies)  He  permits  the  sun  of  another  righteous 
man  to  rise.^  As  Zunz  ^  points  out,  even  if  this  saying 
is  not  to  be  taken  literally,  and  we  suppose  it  to  refer 
to  generations  of  teachers,  the  date  of  the  last-men- 
tioned Rabbi  in  the  list  (Rabbi  Abba  Hoshaya)  is 
only  a  few  years  before  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Julian  (ad.  361-363).  Lastly,  the  frequent  occur- 
rence of  Greek  words  in  this  Midrash  points  to  an 
early  date,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  its  place  of  origin 
is  Palestine.^ 

Bereshith  Rabbah  is  a  continuous  commentary  of 
Haggadic  character  on  the  whole  of  Genesis  ;  the 
sayings  and  explanations  of  many  authorities,  a  large 
number  anonymous,  are  quoted  ;  not  infrequently  the 
compiler  adds  long  narrative  passages  illustrative  of 
some  verse  under  discussion.  References  are  often 
given  to  contemporaneous  historical  events,  and  it  is 
characteristic  of  this  Midrash  "  to  view  the  per- 
sonages and  conditions  of  the  Bible  by  the  light  of 
contemporary  history."  Although  this  Midrash  is  a 
commentary  on  Genesis,  it  must  be  confessed  that,  so 
far  as  elucidation  of  the  text  is  concerned,  it  is  not 
often  illuminating  ;  over  and  over  again  one  finds,  on 
seeking  for  some  explanation  of  a  difficult  text,  that 
the  Midrash  offers  little  that  is  of  help.  There  are, 
of  course,  exceptions  to  this  ;  but,  generally  speaking, 
the  use  and  interest  of  it   are   of  a   different   kind. 

^  The  passage  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  §  58. 
2  op.  cit.  p.  185.  2  See  further  Zunz,  pp.  185  ft. 


THE  MIDRASHIM  67 

One  or  two   examples    of  what    we    mean    may    be 
given  : 

Gen.  iv.  15,  A7id  the  Lord  appointed  a  sign  for  Cain  :  The 
comments  on  this  are  as  follows:  "According  to  Rabbi 
Jehudah,  the  Lord  caused  the  sun  to  rise  on  his  behalf  [/.<?.  that 
all  the  world  might  see  that  Cain  was  forgiven].  According  to 
Rabbi  Nechemiah,  on  the  contrary,  the  Lord  did  not  cause  the 
sun  to  rise  for  this  sinner,  but  made  leprosy  to  come  upon  him 
(Ex.  iv.  8).  Rab  said,  He  (the  Lord)  gave  him  a  dog.  Ac- 
cording to  Abba  Jose  bar  Kisri,  the  Lord  made  the  horn  (of 
salvation)  to  sprout  from  him  ;  according  to  Rab,  the  Lord 
made  him  a  sign  of  warning  for  murderers  ;  according  to  Rabbi 
Chanina,  the  Lord  made  him  a  sign  for  the  repentant  ;  finally, 
according  to  Rabbi  Levi,  speaking  in  the  name  of  Rabbi 
Simeon  ben  Lakish,  the  Lord  caused  him  to  be  suspended  in 
the  air,  and  afterwards  he  was  swept  away  by  the  Plood 
(Gen.  vii.  23)." 

Comments  like  this,  which  do  not  really  throw  any 
light  on  the  subject,  often  occur.  While  exegetically 
this  Midrash  is  not  often  helpful,  in  other  respects  it 
offers  much  that  is  useful  and  interesting  ;  the 
following  example  is  taken  from  the  passage  about 
Abraham  being  commanded  to  sacrifice  Isaac  : 

"  Sammael  ^  came  to  our  father  Abraham  and  said  to  him  : 
'  Old  man,  old  man,  hast  thou  lost  thy  wits  ?  Art  thou  indeed 
about  to  sacrifice  a  son  who  was  given  to  thee  in  thy  hundredth 
year  t '  Abraham  answered  :  '  Even  so.'  Then  Sammael 
continued  :  '  How  if  God  should  prove  thee  still  further,  wouldst 
thou  still  remain  steadfast?'  Abraham  said:  'Even  if  (God 
proved  me)  still  further.'  Again  Sammael  spoke  :  '  But  to- 
morrow He  will  say  to  thee,  Thou  art  a  shedder  of  blood,  thou 
hast  murdered  thy  son.'  Abraham  answered  :  '  Even  so 
[some  words  such  as  '  I  will  carry  out  my  purpose '  are  under- 
stood]. When  Sammael  saw  that  he  could  do  nothing  with 
Abraham,  he  turned  to  Isaac  and  said  to  him:  'Unhappy 
child,  he  is  going  to  kill  thee.'  Isaac  answered:  'Even  so, 
I  will  follow  him.  .  .  .  ' " 

On  the  difficult  words  "  Until  Shilo  come,"  in 
xlix.  10,  the  only  comment  is  that  it  refers  to  "King 
Messiah." 

^  The  angel  of  death  ;  identical  with  Satan  in  Rabbinica 
literature. 

F  2 


68    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

For  the  rest,  there  are  numberless  points  of  doctrine 
and  practice,  interesting  archaeological  details,  fables, 
and  parables,  as  well  as  controversial  passages  against 
heretical  opinions,  all  of  which  go  to  show  that  this 
Midrash  is  of  marked  importance. 

Aggadath  Bereshith.  This  Midrash  is  of  later  date 
and  of  much  less  value.  It  contains  a  collection 
of  homilies  on  various  set  passages  from  Genesis. 
Each  homily  is  in  three  sections,  "  so  arranged  that 
the  first  one  connects  with  a  seder  ('  section ')  from 
Genesis,  the  second  with  a  prophetic  section,  and  the 
third  with  a  psalm."  The  contents  of  these  homilies 
are  for  the  most  part  taken  from  Tanchiima 
(see  below),  according  to  Theodor,  who  speaks  of 
them  as  being  "  notable  for  artistic  composition." 
This  Midrash  deals  in  the  main  with  Genesis,  but  it 
comments  also  on  passages  from  the  Prophetical 
books  and  on  some  of  the  Psalms.  (Best  edition  of 
text,  Buber's,  Cracow,  1903.) 

Exodus.  Two  Midrashic  works  on  this  book 
exist :  Mekilta  ^  and  SJiemoth  Rabbah.  The  former 
and  more  important  one,  which  contains  both  legal 
(Halakic)  and  narrative  (Haggadic)  material,  is  a 
commentary  on  Ex.  xii.-xxiii.  19,  the  main  legal 
portion  of  Exodus ;  it  deals  also  with  the  two 
passages,  xxxi.  12-17,  xxxv.  1-3,  which  contain  the 
law  concerning  the  Sabbath.  It  appears,  therefore, 
that  the  original  intention  of  the  compiler  of  this 
Midrash  was  that  it  should  be  purely  legal  in  char- 
acter ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  contains  just 
about  as  much  Haggadic  matter  as  Halakic.  Like 
Sifra   and    Sifre   (see   below),  this    Midrash   in    its 

^  The  word  means  "  measure,"  "  rule,"  or  "  form,"  equivalent 
to  the  Hebrew  Middah  ;  this  title  was  given  to  the  Midrash 
because  the  fixed  Rabbinical  rules  of  Scriptural  exegesis  are  the 
basis  upon  which  the  comments,  etc.,  it  contains  are  constructed. 
The  best  editions  of  the  Hebrew  text  are  those  of  Weiss 
(Vienna,  1865)  and  Friedmann  (Vienna,   1870). 


THE  MIDRASHIM  69 

original  form  goes  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  A.D.  ''  The  disciples  of  Rabbi  Jochanan  ben 
Zakkai,  viz.  Ishmael,  Akiba,  and  Eleazar  of  Modin, 
appear  to  have  redacted  the  principal  contents  of  the 
exposition  on  the  basis  of  the  still  older  and  anonym- 
ous stratum  of  exegetical  tradition.  Mekilta,  for 
the  greater  part,  contains  the  comments  and  sayings 
of  Rabbi  Ishmael  and  his  pupils.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  seen  that  a  Midrash  which  embodies  so  much 
ancient  material  possesses  a  high  value  and  interest ; 
and  this  is  especially  the  case  from  the  point  of  view 
of  New  Testament  study,  for  it  reflects  the  Jewish 
religious  standpoint  as  this  existed  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles.  As  an  illustration  we  may  give  the 
following  parable,  which  occurs  among  the  comments 
on  Ex.  XX.  2  : 

"  It  is  like  a  king  who  had  two  stewards  ;  one  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  straw  (supplies) ;  the  other  was  set  over  the  gold 
and  silver  treasure.  He  that  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  straw 
(supplies)  came  under  suspicion  (of  unjust  dealing)  ;  thereupon 
he  made  complaint  that  he  had  not  been  set  over  the  gold  and 
silver  treasure.  Then  he  who  had  been  set  over  the  gold  and 
silver  treasure  said  unto  him  :  '  Foolish  man,  having  come 
under  suspicion  of  unjust  dealing  regarding  the  straw  (supplies), 
how  shouldest  thou  be  trusted  with  gold  and  silver?' "^  {cp 
Luke  xvi.  10.) 

The  other  Midrash  on  Exodus,  Shemoth"^  Rabbah^  is 
of  much  later  date  ;  it  belongs  in  its  present  form, 
according  to  Zunz,  to  the  eleventh  .or  twelfth  century 
A.D.,  though  it  has  embodied  a  good  deal  from  earlier 
Midrashiin,  especially  Tanchuina  Yelammedenu  (see 
below).  It  contains  a  large  number  of  parables,  taken  in 
the  main  from  earlier  works  ;  the  thirtieth  section 
alone  contains  nineteen. 

^  ///.  "  Thou  didst  lie  concerning  straw  ;  how  much  more 
(concerning)  gold  and  silver?" 

^  Shemoth  (=  "  Names")  is  the  Hebrew  title  of  Exodus  ;  it  is 
shortened  from  Elleh  Shemoth  ("  These  are  the  names  "),  the 
opening  words  of  the  book. 


70    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Leviticus.  On  this  book,  likewise,  there  are  two 
Midrashim;  both  of  considerable  importance.  The 
first  is  called  Sifi^a  (  =  "  the  Book  ") ;  it  is  also  known 
by  the  name  Torath  Kohanirn'^  (  =  "the  Law  of  the 
priests ").  The  authorities  quoted  in  this  Midrash 
belong,  at  the  latest,  to  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century  A.D.  ;  it  is  almost  wholly  Halakic  in  content, 
as  one  would  expect  in  a  commentary  on  Leviticus  ; 
the  small  Haggadic  portions  correspond  with  the 
historical  passages  in  Leviticus.  Sifra  emanates  from 
Babylonia,  as  its  ancient  title  (see  foot-note  above) 
implies  ;  but  Rab  came  originally  from  Palestine,  so 
that  we  may  take  it  that  much  of  the  Palestinian 
exegetical  tradition  is  embodied  in  this  MidrasJi.  An 
example  of  Halakic  commentary  from  this  work  is 
the  following : 

"  Thou  shalt  not  be  resentful.  What  is  meant  by  being  re- 
sentful ?  When  one  person  says  to  another,  '  Lend  me  your 
axe,'  and  he  will  not  lend  it  ;  then  on  the  following  day  the 
latter  says  to  the  former,  '  Lend  me  your  sickle '  ;  whereupon 
he  says,  '  Here  it  is  ;  I  am  not  like  you,  who  refuse  to  lend  me 
your  axe.'  Therefore  it  is  written  :  Thou  shalt  not  take 
ve7i^ea?ice.,  and  Love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.  Rabbi  Akiba 
says  :  'This  is  the  great  principle  of  the  Torah.'  Ben  Azzai 
says  :  'This  is  the  book  of  the  generations  of  man  (Gen.  v.  i, 
Hebrew),  which  is  a  still  greater  principle.'"  ^ 

The  other  Midrash  on  Leviticus  is  Wayyilcra  ^ 
Rabbali  ;  this  is  one  of  the  older  of  the  Midrashic 
works,  though  not  so  ancient  as  Mekilta,  Sifra,  and 
Sifre  ;  Zunz  dates  it  in  its  present  form  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century  A.D.  ;  it  embodies, 
of  course,  material  of  much  greater  antiquity.  A 
striking  characteristic    of  this    Midrash    is   its   large 

1  Another  ancient  title  is  Sifra  debe  Rab  {=--  "  The  Book  of 
Rab's  Academy")  ;  Abba  Arika,  the  leading  Babylonian 
Amora,  is  distinguished  by  the  title  "  Rab,"  i.e.  the  teacher 
par  excellence. 

"  Quoted  vciJE  viii.  555^. 

^  Wayyikrai^—''''  ^xi^  He  called")  is  the  Hebrew  name  of 
Leviticus,  being  the  word  with  which  the  book  begins. 


THE  MIDRASHIM  71 

collection  of  proverbs,  e.g.  "If  you  have  knowledge, 
what  do  you  lack  ?  If  you  lack  knowledge,  what  do 
you  possess  ?"  (i.  6).  "  If  one  knot  is  unravelled,  then 
two  knots  are  unravelled  "  (xiv.  3).^ 

Numbers.  The  ancient  and  valuable  Midrash 
called  Sifre  =("  Books")  deals  with  Numbers,  from 
chap.  V.  to  the  end,  and  the  whole  of  Deuteronomy. 
The  authorship  is  clearly  dual  ;  the  portion  which  is 
concerned  with  Numbers  is  almost  entirely  Halakic, 
and  it  is  full  of  the  tedious  and  long-drawn-out 
discussions  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Talmud  ; 
the  polemical  element  also  is  pronounced.  The 
Deuteronomy  portion  is,  likewise,  in  the  main  Halakic, 
but  it  is  also  in  part  Haggadic.  The  whole  belongs  to 
the  third  century  A.D.  It  is  a  very  important  source 
for  dogmatic  Judaism  ;  the  following  are  a  few 
examples  : 

"There  is  not  a  single  commandment  the  fulfilment  of  which 
does  not  at  once  bring  with  it  its  corresponding  reward  (35^). 

The  words  of  the  Torah  are  to  be  compared  with  water. 
Just  as  water  is  life  to  the  world,  so,  too,  are  the  words  of  the 
Torah  life  to  the  world  (84*7). 

Wherever  God  is  called  Jehovah,  there  it  is  implied  that  He 
is  the  God  of  mercy  ;  wherever  He  is  called  Elohim,  there  it  is 
implied  that  He  acts  according  to  strict  justice  ijia). 

Lord  of  the  world,  why  did  the  first  Adam  ^  die  ?  He  (God) 
answered  them  (the  angels) :  Because  he  did  not  fulfil  My 
commands  (141^?)."^ 

The  other  Midrash  on  Numbers  is  called  Bemidbar^ 
Rabbah.  This  composite  work  is  made  up  largely  of 
quotations  from  TancJiuma  (see  below).  It  belongs 
to  the  twelfth  century  A.D.,  and  is  of  much  less 
importance  than  Sifre. 

^  Quoted  in  JE  viii.  560^. 

2  With  the  expression  "the  first  Adam"  cp.  i  Cor.  xv.  45  f. 

3  These  quotations  are  from  Weber,  Juedische  Theologie^ 
■bassim. 

^  Befnidbar  ("in  the  wilderness")  is  the  Hebrew  name  for 
Numbers  ;  it  is  the  important  word  in  the  opening  sentence 
of  the  book. 


72    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Deuteronomy.  Of  the  more  important  of  the 
two  Midrashim  on  this  book,  Sifre,  we  have  already 
spoken.  The  other  is  Debarim  ^  Rabbah  ;  this  is  of 
late  date,  about  A.D.  900  according  to  Zunz.  Like 
Bemidbar  Rabbah,  it  has  many  extracts  from  Tan- 
chunia.     A  short  quotation  may  be  ^iven  : 

"  Our  Rabbis  say  that  the  Torah  may  be  compared  with  five 
things  :  with  water,  with  wine,  with  honey,  with  milk,  and  with 
oil.  ...  As  this  oil  gives  life  to  the  world,  so  also  do  the  words 
of  the  Torah  give  life  to  the  world  ;  as  this  oil  gives  light  to  the 
world,  so  also  do  the  words  of  the  Torah  give  light  to  the  world  " 
(§7). 

Samuel.  The  Midrash  Shemnel  is  a  late  work 
belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century, 
and  there  are  interpolations  of  still  later  date.^  Of 
the  thirty-two  sections  into  which  the  work  is  divided, 
only  the  last  eight  deal  with  the  second  book  of 
Samuel,  all  the  rest  being  concerned  with  the  first 
book.  This  Midrash  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time 
by  Rashi  (1040-1105);  it  emanates  from  Palestine, 
and  the  compiler  drew  his  material  for  the  most  part 
from  early  Palestinian  authorities  whose  comments, 
etc.,  are  already  quoted  in  the  Mishnah  and  earlier 
Midrashim.  This  work  does  not  offer  much  that  is 
not  found  in  earlier  writings  ;  its  value,  therefore,  is 
small. 

Psalms.  The  Midrash  on  the  Psalms,  called 
Midrash  TeJiillim^  is  a  commentary  on  Pss.  i.- 
cxviii.,  to  which  was  added  later  an  appendix  dealing 
with  the  rest  of  the  Psalms.     Although  late  in  date 

1  Debarim  (=  "  words  ")  is  the  Hebrew  name  for  Deuter- 
onomy ;  it  is  shortened  from  Elleh  ha-Debarim  ("  These  are 
the  words  "),  the  opening  words  of  the  book. 

2  Zunz,  op.  cit.  p.  282.  Edition  of  Hebrew  text  by  Buber 
(Cracow,  1893). 

^  The  Hebrew  for  "  Psalms"  ;  this  Midrash  is  also  known  by 
the  name  oi  Shocker  fob  (=  "  He  that  diligently  seeketh  good," 
Prov.  xi.  27),  the  opening  words  of  the  book.  Best  Hebrew 
text,  Buber's  Midrasch  Tehillim  (Wilna,  1891). 


THE   MIDRASHIM  73 

(not  later  than  the  eleventh  century),  it  contains  a 
great  mass  of  interesting  and  valuable  material, 
partly  homiletic  and  partly  exegetical,  much  of 
which  is  ancient.  It  is  important  as  containing  the 
traditional  Palestinian  exegesis  of  the  Psalms.  This 
Midrash  contains  a  number  of  "  stories,  legends, 
parables,  proverbs,  and  sentences,  with  many  ethical 
and  Halakic  maxims.  Of  the  interesting  myths  may 
be  mentioned  that  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  to  suckle 
whom  God  sends  a  she-wolf  (i^zV/r.  Teh.  to  Ps.  x.  6) ; 
and  the  legend  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  who  wished 
to  measure  the  depth  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  {Midr.  Teh. 
to  Ps.  xciii.  6)."  ^  The  following  is  an  example  of  a 
parable  ;  it  occurs  in  the  comment  on  Ps.  ii.  12,  Kiss 
the  son  lest  he  be  angry  ^  and  ye  perisJi  from  the  way  : 

"  Whereunto  is  this  to  be  compared.''  It  is  like  a  king  who 
was  wroth  against  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  ;  these,  therefore, 
went  unto  the  king's  son  and  made  their  peace  with  him,  in 
order  that  he  might  go  to  the  king  and  make  peace  on  their 
behalf  So  he  went  and  pacified  the  king.  When  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  city  knew  that  the  king  had  been  propitiated,  they 
desired  to  sing  a  song  (of  thanksgiving)  to  him  ;  but  he 
answered  and  said :  '  Do  ye  wish  to  sing  a  song  (of  thanks- 
giving) to  me?  Nay,  but  go  and  sing  it  unto  my  son  ;  for 
had  it  not  been  for  him,  I  should  have  destroyed  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city.' " 

Proverbs.  The  Midrash  on  this  book,  which  has 
not  come  down  to  us  in  its  entirety,  is  called  Midrash 
Mishle  (=  "  Proverbs  ").2  Opinions  differ  as  to  its 
date.  Zunz  places  it  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century ;  others  regard  it  as  belonging  to 
the  eighth  century.  Its  place  of  origin  is  believed  to 
be  Babylonia,  but  this  cannot  be  stated  with  cer- 
tainty. Lauterbach  says  of  this  Midrash  that  it  "  is 
different  from  all  other  Haggadic  Midrashim  in  that 
its  interpretations  approach  the  simple  exegesis  then 
in  vogue,  being  brief  and  free  from  the  prolixity 
found  in  the  other  Midrashim,  so  that  this  work  is  in 

^  JE  X.  250^  2  Best  Hebrew  text,  Ruber's  (Wilna,  1893). 


74    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

the  form  of  a  commentary  rather  than  in  that  of  a 
Midrash.  The  interpretations  follow  immediately 
upon  the  words  of  the  text,  without  the  introductory 
formulas  found  in  the  other  Midrashhn,  *  as  Scripture 
says,'  or  '  Rabbi  N.  N.  began ' ;  the  latter  formula, 
however,  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  the  Midrash!'  ^ 

Jonah.  The  Midrash  on  this  book,  called  Mid- 
rash  Yonah,  which  contains  a  Haggadic  account  of 
the  Biblical  story,  is  read  in  the  synagogue  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement.  It  consists  of  two  parts;  the 
first  part  is  the  Midrash  proper,  while  the  second 
contains  the  story  of  Jonah  allegorically  referred  to 
the  soul.  Zunz  says  it  contains  extracts  from  the 
Talmud  and  long  passages  from  the  Baraitha  of 
Rabbi  Eliezer,  but  does  not  offer  anything  original.^ 
It  is  of  late  date,  having  been  compiled  subsequently 
to  the  Midrash  on  the  books  of  Samuel. 

Evidence  is  forthcoming  that  at  one  time  Mid- 
rashiin  on  Ezra,  the  books  of  Chronicles,  and  Job 
existed,  as  quotations  from  these  are  found  in 
Rabbinical  writings. 

The  Five  Megh.LOTH.  The  Midrashim  on 
Ruth,  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Songs,  Lamentations, 
Esther  form  a  special  group,  with  the  exception  of 
Lamentations  (see  below)  ;  they  are  called  the  five 
Megilioth{^  "Rolls"): 

Midrash  Ruth.  In  its  present  form  this  little  work 
belongs  to  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century  ;  but,  like 
so  many  of  the  MidrasJiim  it  embodies  a  great  deal 
of  much  earlier  material.  Thus  many  passages  from 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  BeresJiith  Rabbah,  and  Pesikta 
are  found  in  this  Midrash  ;  and  it  is  likely  enough 
that  other  ancient  writings  have  been  laid  under 
contribution  ;  so  that  the  value  of  many  of  these 
later  Midrashim  is  not  necessarily  diminished  be- 
cause their  date  of  compilation  is  late.  Midrash 
Ruth,  which  consists  of  eight  divisions,  is  a  running 
*  JE  X.  231/^.  -  op.  at.  p.  282. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  75 

Haggadic  commentary  on  the  book  of  Ruth,  which 
is  preceded  by  a  special  introduction  containing 
various  proems  (on  these  see  below).  There  are 
many  interesting  matters  dealt  with,  archaeological 
and  dogmatic  points  being  of  frequent  occurrence, 
and,  according  to  the  Jewish  traditional  method, 
parables  and  stories  often  illustrate  subjects  of  dis- 
cussion ;  the  following  is  an  example  : 

"  A  king  was  journeying  from  place  to  place  ;  and  a  pearl  fell 
from  his  head  {i.e.  from  the  crown  on  his  head).  Then  the  king 
and  all  his  following  arose  (and  sought  the  pearl).  And  the 
people  who  were  passing  by  said  :  '  What  is  the  king,  with  his 
following,  seeking  here?'  They  were  answered  :  'Do  ye  not 
see  that  a  pearl  has  fallen  from  the  king's  head  ? '  So  what  did 
(the  king)  do?  He  caused  the  soil  to  be  heaped  up  and  had 
sieves  brought  ;  then  they  put  the  soil  of  one  heap  through  the 
sieves,  but  found  nothing  ;  they  did  the  same  with  a  second 
heap  ;  all  in  vain.  At  last,  at  the  third  heap  he  found  (his 
pearl).  Then  said  the  people  :  '  The  king  has  found  his  pearl 
again.'" 

This  parable  is  spoken  in  reference  to  God  seeking 
Abraham  (§  viii.,  beginning). 

Midrash  KoJieleth.  This  MidrasJi  on  Ecclesiastes 
is  late,  but,  like  the  one  just  considered,  contains  a 
great  deal  of  early  material,  and  is  Haggadic  in 
character.  Its  interpretation  of  the  text  of  Eccle- 
siastes is  largely  allegorical  ;  e.g.  such  passages  as 
Eccles.  ii.  24;  iii.  13;  v.  17;  viii.  15,  where  an 
Epicurean  and  hedonistic  view  is  expressed,  are 
interpreted  allegorically  and  given  a  religious  signi- 
ficance, viz. :  "  Wherever  eating  and  drinking  are 
spoken  of  in  this  way,  the  pleasure  is  meant  which 
the  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  performance  of  good 
works  afford."  ^ 

Midrash  Shir  ha-Shirim  Rabbati.     This  Midrash 

to    the    Song    of    Songs    is    called    also    Aggadath 

Chazitha,   from    the   opening    Hebrew    words.     The 

comments   and    explanations,   often    clothed    in    the 

^  Quoted  by  Theodor,/^  vii.  530^*. 


76    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

garb  of  a  homily,  are  free  and  untrammelled  ;  "  the 
words  of  the  text  are  treated  in  very  diverse  ways, 
being  made  to  apply  now  to  historical  events,  now 
to  practical  life  with  its  religious  needs.  .  .  .  Extra- 
ordinarily rich  in  colouring  is  the  picture  of  the 
'  Woes  of  the  Messiah,'  i.e.  the  tragic  period  which  is 
to  precede  the  advent  of  the  son  of  David."  ^  The 
work  is  full  of  interesting  matter,  many  parables  and 
well-told  stories,  as  well  as  fables  and  legends,  occur- 
ring in  it.  The  Song  of  Songs  is  throughout  inter- 
preted allegorically.  Like  the  other  Mtdrashim  in 
this  group,  this  one,  which  is  a  much  bigger  work 
than  Midrash  RutJi^  not  only  has  many  extracts  from 
earlier  writings,  especially  Bereshith  Rabbah,  the 
Jerusalem  Talmud,  etc.,  but  also  contains  material 
anterior  to  these.  Its  date  in  its  present  form  is 
earlier  than  the  two  foregoing,  as  it  belongs  to  a 
time  previous  to  the  ninth  century ;  a  more  exact 
date  cannot  be  determined.  As  an  example  of 
allegorical  interpretation  the  following  may  be  cited  : 
i.  5,  "  I  am  black,  but  comely  .  .  ."  (supposed  to  be 
said  by  Solomon) ;  this  is  explained  thus : 

"  I  appear  black  in  my  deeds,  but  comely  in  those  of  my 
fathers.  The  congregation  of  Israel  says,  I  appear  black  unto 
myself,  but  comely  in  the  eyes  of  my  Creator."    See  Amos  ix.  7.'^ 

Ekah  Rabbati.  This  Midrash  on  Lamentations  is 
so  called  on  account  of  its  opening  word  Ekah 
(="How").  Rabbati  is  added  for  the  similar 
reason  that  Rabbah  is  added  to  certain  other  Mid- 
rashim  (see  above).  It  occupies  a  special  position  in 
this  group  because  it  belongs  to  the  oldest  of  the 
Midrashic  works  ;  it  was  compiled  from  a  mass  of 
ancient  material  in  the  second  half  of  the   seventh 

^  Wiinsche,  Der  Midrasch  Schir  ha-Schirim,  p.  v. 

'^  Am.  ix.  7  runs  :  "  Are  you  not  as  the  children  of  the 
Ethiopians  unto  Me,  O  children  of  Israel }  saith  the  Lord." 
It  is  a  good  instance  of  the  mechanical  use  the  Rabbis  make  of 
the  words  of  Biblical  texts,  no  matter  how  inappropriate  the 
use  of  the  text  itself  may  be. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  77 

century,  according  to  Zunz.^  "  The  Haggadic  expla- 
nation of  this  book  (Lamentations) — which  is  a  dirge 
on  the  fall  of  the  Jewish  state  and  the  extinction  of 
the  national  splendour — was  treated  by  scholars  as 
especially  appropriate  to  the  Ninth  of  Ab,'^  to  the 
day  of  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  to  the  eve 
of  that  fast-day."  ^  The  character  of  the  contents  of 
this  Midrash  is  similar  to  that  of  the  others  in  this 
group.  (The  best  edition  is  that  of  Buber,  Wilna, 
1899.) 

Midrash  Megillath  Esther.  This  Midrash  on  the 
book  of  Esther  (Megillath  =  "  Roll ")  is  also  called 
Haggadath  {=  '' Naivraitive")  Megt//ah.  It  was  com- 
piled before  the  eighth  century,  as  it  is  often  cited 
in  Rabbinical  writings  subsequent  to  that  date.'' 
Like  the  other  Midrashim  of  this  group,  it  borrows 
largely  from  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Bereshith  Rabbah, 
and  Wayyikra  Rabbah. 

B.  Among  the  Midrashim  which  deal  with  more 
than  one  book  of  the  Old  Testament  the  first  which 
claims  attention  is 

Pesikta^  This  word  means  "  Section,"  and  the 
Midrash  is  so  called  because  it  is  based  on  the 
Scripture  sections  which  form  the  lessons  read  in 
the  synagogue  on  Sabbaths  and  festivals.  As  these 
lessons  are  taken  from  the  Pentateuch  and  the  . 
Prophetical  writings,  this  Midrash  deals  with  a  y 
number  of  different  Biblical  books.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant work  on  account  of  its  age,  since  it  belongs  to 
approximately  the  same  period  as  Bereshith  Rabbah, 
or  even  earlier.  But,  as  Theodor^  points  out,  "the 
proems  (see  below)  in  the  Pesikta,  developed  from 
short  introductions  to  the  exposition  of  the  Scripture 
text  into  more  independent  homiletic  structures,   as 

^  op.  cit.  p.  191.  -  One  of  the  chief  Jewish  fast-days. 

^  Theodor  vaJE  v.  85/^.  *  See  Zunz,  op.  cit.  p.  276. 

^  Known  also  as  Pestkta  de-Rab  Kahana,  from  the  name  of 
the  compiler  ;  but  see  Zunz,  op.  cit.  pp.  204  f.  Text  by  Buber 
(Lyck,  1868) ;  German  translation  by  Wunsche,  1885. 

®  JE  viii.  560a. 


78    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

well  as  the  mastery  of  form  apparent  in  the  final 
formulas  of  the  proems,  indicate  that  the  Pesikta 
belongs  to  a  higher  stage  of  Midrashic  development." 
Each  of  the  sections  of  which  the  Midrash  is  com- 
posed forms  a  self-contained  whole,  the  subject  of 
which  is  the  particular  Scriptural  lesson  for  the 
Sabbath  or  festival  in  question  ;  this  is  haggadically 
developed  and  ramifies  into  a  mass  of  topics  in 
relation,  more  or  less,  to  the  original  subject.  A 
good  deal  of  the  Midrash  is  identical  with  parallel 
passages  in  Bereshith  RabbaJi,  Wayyikra  RabbaJi,  and 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud. 

Pesikta  Rabbati}  This  Midrash,  like  the  one  just 
considered,  is  also  a  collection  of  homilies  on  the 
lessons  from  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets  for 
Sabbaths  and  festivals.  It  is  called  Rabbati 
("  Larger ")  to  distinguish  it  from  the  earlier  and 
more  important  Pesikta.  Although  the  names  are 
similar,  the  contents  of  these  two  Midrashiui  differ 
entirely.  Zunz  assigns  the  second  half  of  the  ninth 
century  as  the  date  of  its  compilation. 

Tanchinna  Yelanimedenu.  Two  originally  distinct 
Midrashim  have  become  amalgamated  under  this 
name:  (i)  the  Midrash  Tanchiima,  the  work  of  a 
celebrated  Palestinian  Rabbi,  named  Tanchuma,  who 
lived  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century ; 
and  (2)  a  Midrash  called  Yelaminedenu,  an  abbre- 
viation of  Yelanimedenu  Rabbenu  ( =  "  Let  our 
Master  teach  us "),  the  formula  with  which  the 
Halakic  exordium  begins.-  Of  these  two  the 
Midrash  of  Tanchuma  is  the  more  ancient,  belong- 
ing to  the  fifth  century  in  its  present  form  ;  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  Midrashic  writings. 
The  Yelanimedenu  is  later,  having  been  compiled 
during  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  This  amalga- 
mated Midrash  contains  a  collection  of  homilies 
dealing  with  all  five  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 

^  Hebrew  text  edited  by  M.  Friedmann  (Wien,  1880). 
2  Theodor,/^  viii.  ^doa. 


THE   MIDRASHIM  79 

Midrash  Hashkem.  This,  in  the  main,  Haggadic 
Midrash  on  the  Pentateuch  is  so  called  after  the 
second  word  of  the  opening  sentence,  taken  from 
Ex.  viii.  20  (verse  16  in  the  Hebrew),  with  which  it 
begins:  "Hashkem,"  i.e.  "Rise  up  early."  It  also 
has  the  name  We-Hishir ;  this  is  abbreviated  from 
the  standing  formula:  VVe-hizhir  ha-Kadosh,  bariik 
Hu  ("And  may  the  Holy  One— Blessed  be  He! — 
instruct  [lit.  illuminate] "),  with  which  most  of  the 
sections  in  the  Midrash  begin.  It  used  to  be 
thought  that  these  two  names  indicated  the  exist- 
ence of  two  distinct  Midrashim  ;  but  Zunz  has 
shown  that  they  are  really  one  and  the  same  work, 
and  his  conclusion  is  now  generally  accepted.  This 
Midrash  is  defective  ;  it  is  assigned  by  Zunz  to  the 
middle  of  the  tenth  century.  It  is  one  of  the  less 
important  among  the  Midrashic  works. 

Finally,  mention  may  be  made  of  four  special  Hag- 
gadic works  which  partake  of  a  Midrashic  character : 

Pirke^  de  Rabbi  Eliezer.  This  contains  lengthy 
Haggadic  discussions  on  all  the  most  important 
events  described  in  the  Pentateuch.  According  to 
Zunz,  it  cannot  have  been  composed  before  the 
eighth  century  (see  also  Gerald  Friedlander's  transla- 
tion, pp.  liii  ff.). 

Yalkut'^  Shimconi.  This  is  a  great  collection  of 
Midrashic  material  ranging  over  the  entire  Old 
Testament.  Shimeon  was  presumably  a  Rabbi  who 
lived  in  Frankfort^  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  the  date 
of  this  work  cannot  be  determined.  Its  chief  value 
is  text-critical,  for  the  comparison  between  it  and  the 
ancient  Midrashic  works  helps  towards  determining 
the  correct  text  of  the  latter. 

Yalkiit  ha-Makiri.  This  is  a  later  work  than  the 
foregoing,  but  also  useful  for  text-critical    purposes. 

^  Pirke  =  "  Sections."  An  English  translation  by  Gerald  M. 
Friedlander  was  published  in  London  in  191 6. 

2  Va/M  =  "  Collection." 

3  This  is  stated  in  the  preface  to  the  printed  edition  of 
the  work  (1709)  ;   but  there  seems  to  be  some  doubt  about  it. 


8o    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

It  is  not  known  when  the  author,  Machir  ben  Abba 
Mari,  lived.  The  collection  of  Midrashic  material 
which  Machir  gathered  seems  to  have  dealt  with  the 
Prophetical  books  and  the  Hagiographa  ;  but  we  do 
not  know  what  the  original  extent  of  the  work  was. 

Midrash  ha-Gadol}  This  is  a  still  more  compre- 
hensive work  than  the  two  foregoing,  as  it  includes 
quotations  from  the  Targums  and  Kabbalistic  writings 
(which  the  other  collections  do  not),  in  addition  to 
those  from  the  MidrasJiirn  and  Talimidiiii.  It  is 
later  in  date  than  the  others.  The  name  of  the 
author  is  not  known. 

There  are,  in  addition  to  the  writings  which  have 
been  enumerated,  many  other  small  and  unimportant 
Midrashic  works.  It  is  not  necessary  to  mention 
these  by  name.  All  that  are  of  real  value  have  been 
dealt  with  above. 

A  final  word  must  be  said  about  what  are  called 
the  Proems.  These  are  introductions,  or  prefatory 
remarks,  which  in  all  the  more  important  Haggadic 
Midrashint  precede  the  expository  matter  proper. 
They  occupy,  as  Theodor  insists,  "  an  important 
position  in  the  entire  Midrash  literature  .  .  .  they 
are  the  clearest  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a 
deliberate  technical  arrangement  in  the  Haggadic 
Midrashim,  and  constitute  both  in  name  {petichah) 
and  in  nature  an  introduction  to  the  exposition  of 
the  lesson  proper  ;  to  this,  however,  they  lead  up  by 
means  of  the  interpretation  of  an  extraneous  text, 
the  proemial  text,  which  must  not  be  taken  from  the 
lesson  itself ;  and  the  proems  may  be  as  different  in 
structure  and  finish  as  in  contents.  The  proems  are 
either  simple,  consisting  of  a  simple  exposition  of  the 
proem  text,  often  amplified  by  quotations,  parables, 
etc.,  and  connected  throughout,  or  at  least  at  the  end, 
with  the  lesson  or  with  the  initial  verse  thereof;  or 
composite,  consisting  of  different  interpretations  of  the 

1  Ha-Gadol  =-'' The  Great."  The  Hebrew  text  of  the  part 
on  Genesis  was  edited  by  Schechter  (Cambridge,  1902). 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  8i 

same  extraneous  verse,  by  one  or  by  various  authors, 
and  connected  in  various  ways,  but  always  of  such  a 
nature  that  the  last  interpretation,  the  last  com- 
ponent part  of  the  proem,  leads  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  lesson  proper."  ^  The  proems  are  often  of 
great  length,  sometimes  longer  than  the  whole  of  the 
interpretations  which  follow  ;  in  some  cases  there  is 
more  than  one  proem.  It  often  happens  that  proems, 
or  parts  of  them,  belonging  to  earlier  Midrashim 
have  been  incorporated  into  the  expository  portions 
of  others ;  by  this  means  the  dependence  of  one 
MidrasJi  on  another  can  be  established.  The  proems 
are  also  important  on  account  of  the  ancient  material 
which  they  so  often  embody. 


Ill 

THE   TALMUDIC   LITERATURE 

[Literature  :  "  The  Talmud,"  an  article  published  in  the 
Quarterly  Review^  October,  1867,  by  E.  Deutsch,  and  reprinted 
in  \i\s  Literary  Remai7is  {l^oxvdi^iYi^  1874)  ;  the  articles  "Talmud" 
\nJE  xii.  pp.  1-27  (by  Bacher),  and  in  the  extra  volume  of 
Hastings's  DB,  pp.  57-66  (by  Schechter),  also  in  the  Eiicycl. 
Britt.  (by  Schiller-Szinessy).  Useful  compendiums  of  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  are  Mielziner's  Introduction  to  the 
Talmud  (Cincinnati  and  Chicago,  1894)  and  Strack's  Ei7t- 
leitung  in  den  Thalmud  (Leipzig,  4th  ed.  1908).  See  also 
y?H^6^pp.  52-76. 

A  new  edition  of  the  Babylonian  Talniud  (based  upon  a 
rearranged  and  abridged  text)  in  an  English  translation,  by 
Michael  L.  Rodkinson,  was  published  by  the  "  New  Talmud 
Publishing  Company,"  in  New  York,  in  16  vols.  (18  vols,  in 
16),  together  with  an  introductory  volume  on  the  History  of  the 
Talmud  (2  vols,  in  i  ;    1896- 1903). 

Various  "Selections"  from  the  Talmud  have  been  published 
in  English  ;  the  following  may  be  mentioned  here  :  Hershon's 
Talmudic  Miscellany  (1880);  his  Treasures  of  the  Talmud 
(1882)  ;  and  his  Genesis  with  a  Talmudic  Cotninentary  (1883)  ; 
Polano,  The  Talmud  (in  the  "Chandos  Classics")  ;  Montague, 
Tales  from  the  Talmud  (London,  1906)  ;  Gerald  Friedlander, 

'  ^  TE  \\\\.  553^. 


82    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Rabbinic  Philosophy  and  Ethics  (an  excellent  volume  ;  London, 
1912). 

Reference  may  also  be  made  to  Schiirer,  HJP  i.  i.  pp.  ii7ff., 
and  to  I.  Abrahams,  Short  History  of  Jewish  Literature^  chaps. 
i.  and  iii.  (London,  1906). 

Other  literature  is  referred  to  below  under  the  separate 
sections.] 

(i)  Introductory 

The  term  "'  Talmud "  is  applied  generally  to  the 
vast  corpus  of  Jewish  traditional  literature  which  has 
been  preserved  in  two  independent  collections,  viz. 
the  "  Talmud  Jerushalmi  "  (T.J.),  i.e.  the  Jerusalem  or 
Palestinian  Talmud,  and  the  "Talmud  Babli "  (T.B.), 
or  "  Babylonian  Talmud."  Both  collections  are  the 
product  of  the  Jewish  schools,  the  former  repre- 
senting the  work  of  the  Palestinian  schools,  and 
completed  some  time  in  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  the 
latter  embodying  the  work  of  the  Babylonian  schools, 
and  completed  about  a  century  later  than  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud.  Both  may  be  regarded  as  amplifi- 
cations of  the  Mishnah,  which,  in  the  form  that  was 
officially  sanctioned  by  R.  Judah  I.  about  A.D.  190  or 
200,  was  simultaneously  adopted  in  Palestine  and 
Babylonia  as  the  basis  for  the  discussions  of  the 
schools.  Consequently  the  Mishnah  is  regarded  as 
a  component  part  of  both  Talmuds  ;  and  even  those 
parts  of  the  Mishnah  which  have  no  Talmudic 
amplification  are  included  in  the  text  of  editions  of 
the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

It  is  important  to  realise  that  both  the  Mishnah 
and  the  later  Talmudic  amplifications,  which  rest 
upon  it,  represent  an  oral  tradition,  transmitted  for 
centuries  in  an  oral  form,  until  finally  it  was  redacted 
in  a  fixed  written  shape.  When  exactly  these  works 
were  reduced  to  writing  is  uncertain.  A  third-century 
prohibition  forbids  the  committal  of  the  teaching  of 
tradition  to  writing,  or  the  use  of  any  written  form  of 
such  by  the   teachers    in    lecturing   (T.B.    Gitt.    60^, 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  83 

Tem.  14^).  In  a  reply  addressed  to  the  scholars  of 
Kairwan,  Sherira  Gaon  (a.D.  900 — ICX)0)  alludes  to 
this  prohibition  as  follows  : 

"  In  answer  to  your  question  asking  when  the 
Mishnah  and  Talmud  were  respectively  com- 
mitted to  writing,  it  should  be  said  that  neither 
of  them  was  thus  transmitted,  but  both  were 
arranged  [redacted]  orally ;  and  the  scholars 
believe  it  to  be  their  duty  to  recite  them  from 
memory  and  not  from  written  copies."  ^ 

It  is  clear  from  Sherira's  words  that  even  in  the 
tenth  century  the  scholars  of  the  Jewish  Babylonian 
Academies  abstained  from  using  written  copies  of  the 
Talmud  in  their  lectures  ;  they  were,  it  would  seem, 
sufficiently  familiar  with  its  text  to  be  able  to  recite 
this  from  memory.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Gaon's 
words  certainly  imply  that  written  copies  were 
already  in  existence.  Such  manuscripts,  though 
their  public  and  official  use  was  interdicted,  were 
doubtless  employed  for  purposes  of  private  study. 
At  an  earlier  period  still,  during  the  time  of  the 
Amoraim  (third  to  fifth  centuries  A.D.),  it  is  probable 
that  the  Mishnah  and  the  allied  traditional  literature 
of  the  Tannaim  had  already  been  reduced  to  writing. 
It  may  be  added  that,  owing  to  the  persecution  of 
the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  consequent  de- 
struction of  their  MS.  literature,  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  MSS.  of  the  Talmud  have  survived. 
Most  of  these  are  fragmentary,  codices  of  single 
sections  ("  Sedarim ")  or  even  of  single  tractates 
("  Massektoth"),  which  are  preserved  in  various  Euro- 
pean libraries.  The  only  known  complete  MS.  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  written  in  A.D.  1369,  is  in  the 
possession  of  the  Royal  Library  of  Munich.  A 
fragment  of  the  tractate  Pesahim,  of  the  ninth  or 
tenth  century,  is  preserved  in  the  University  Library 
1  Cited  in  JE  xii.  19^  (art.  "Talmud"). 

G  2 


84    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

of  Cambridge,  and  an  edition  of  this,  with  autotype 
facsimile,  was  issued  at  Cambridge  in  1879,  under  the 
editorship  of  W.  H.  Lowe.  The  same  editor  was 
also  responsible  for  a  printed  edition  of  the  text  of 
the  MisJmah  on  which  the  Palestinian  Tab^iud  rests, 
from  a  unique  MS.  preserved  in  the  University 
Library  of  Cambridge  (1883).  This  is  the  most 
important  extant  authority  for  the  text  of  the 
Mishnah. 

The  first  printed  editions  of  this  literature  were 
issued  at  Naples  and  Venice.  At  Naples  as  early 
as  1492  the  Mishnah,  with  the  commentary  of 
Maimonides,  appeared.  The  first  complete  edition 
of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  was  published  by  Daniel 
Bomberg  in  twelve  folio  volumes,  at  Venice,  in 
1520-23.  It  contains  not  only  the  text,  but  also 
the  commentary  of  Rashi,  the  Tosaphoth,  the  com- 
pendium of  Asheri,  and  the  Mishnah-commentary  of 
Maimonides.  This  editio  princeps  has  become  the 
model  for  all  subsequent  editions,  which  reproduce 
its  pagination  by  which  reference  to  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  is  made.  It  is  also  important  critically, 
because  it  is  free  from  the  mutilations  introduced 
into  later  editions  by  the  Christian  censorship. 
The  first  edition  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  was  also 
issued  by  Daniel  Bomberg,  at  Venice,  in  1523-24,  in 
one  folio  volume,  without  any  commentary. 

The  technical  term  "  Talmud "  has  undergone  a  certain 
amount  of  development  in  meaning.  Originally  an  old  scholastic 
term  of  the  Tannaim  {i.e.  the  Rabbis  mentioned  in  the  Mishnah), 
its  primary  meaning  is  (i)  "teaching"  (from  the  Hebrew  to"? 

"teach"),  although  it  also  signifies  "learning."^  In  this  latter 
sense  it  sometimes  denotes  "the  study  of  religion,"  and  is 
contrasted  with  "practice"  (niirs-n),  i-e.  the  practice  of  religion. 
In  the  sense  of  "teaching"  it  frequently  occurs  in  Tannaitic 
terminology,  e.g.  in  the  phrase  talmud  loittar,  to  denote  teaching 

^  e.g.  in  the  phrase  Talmud  Tofah  =  ''study  [learning]  of  the 
Law." 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  85 

based  upon  the  text  of  the  Bible  and  the  exegetic  deductions 
made  therefrom,  and  especially  "teaching"  which  takes  the 
form  of  a  Halakic  principle  deduced  by  exegesis  from  the 
Biblical  text.  The  term  "Talmud"  thus  denotes  primarily,  in 
the  Tannaitic  phraseology,  the  exegetic  confirmation  of  the 
Halakah,  or  binding  religious  rule. 

It  further  (2)  came  to  be  applied,  in  a  more  restricted  sense, 
to  the  exposition  of  the  Halakah  when  this  had  been  formulated 
into  an  independent  code  of  Law  (the  Mishnah).  In  this  more 
restricted  sense  it  is  distinguished  from  study  of  the  Bible 
text  {Mikra\  and  also  from  that  of  the  Mishnah. 

In  a  story  referring  to  the  Patriarch  Judah  I.  (the  compiler  of 
the  Mishnah  in  its  present  form)  the  three  branches  of  study,  as 
thus  developed,  are  clearly  distinguished.  The  members  of  the 
Academy  are  classified  as  follows  (T.B.  Baba  bathra  Za^ 
according  to  the  true  text  of  the  passage)  :  those  who  devoted 
themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Bible-text  (j^ipn  'bri)  ;  those  who 
gave  themselves  principally  to  the  study  of  the  Mishnah 
(rr:^D  'Vra) ;  and  those  who  mainly  studied  the  Talmud  (rro'^n  'bri)- 

With  this  special  development  of  Talmud  study  the  term 
"Talmud"  (3)  began  to  acquire  a  larger  meaning.  The 
Mishnah  became  an  integral  part  of  the  "  Talmud,"  which  also 
gradually  incorporated  into  itself  a  large  portion  of  the  old 
Midrashic  literature.*  The  term  occurs  in  this  comprehensive 
sense,  as  a  designation  of  the  entire  corpus^  in  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  itself.^ 

As  distinguished  from  the  Mishnah,  the  commentary  on  it  is 
termed  "  Gemara,"  a  word  derived  from  Babylonian  Aramaic 
which  has  the  meaning  "  what  has  been  learned,"  i.e.  the 
learning  that  has  been  transmitted  by  tradition,  and  then,  in  a 
restricted  sense,  applied  specially  to  the  exposition  of  the 
Mishnah.  In  this  technical  sense  it  seems  to  have  been  a 
comparatively  late  substitution  for  the  term  "  Talmud." 

While  the  Mishnah  was  written  in  pure  Hebrew, 
the  language  of  the  Gemara,  both  of  the  Palestinian 
and  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  is  predominantly 
Aramaic.  The  Aramaic  of  each  Talmud  is,  however, 
different,  that  of  the  Babylonian  being  a  dialect  of 
Eastern  Aramaic  (akin  to  "  Syriac "),  while  the 
Aramaic  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud   is   Western   in 

*  Of  course,  the  Midrashic  literature  has  been  edited  in 
separate  and  independent  collections  (see  Part  II.,  section  ii., 
above).  But  many  passages  have  parallel  versions  in  the 
Talniuds.  -  See  Bacher  \xiJE  xii.  2b  for  details. 


86    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

character,  and  approximates  to  the  dialect  of  the 
Palestinian  Targum.  The  contents  of  the  two 
Gemaras  are  also  largely  independent.^ 

The  Talmud  is  in  many  respects  unique  among 
the  literary  monuments  of  the  world.  "  In  form  a 
commentary,  it  became  an  encyclopaedia  of  Jewish 
faith  and  scholarship,  comprising  whatsoever  the 
greatest  representatives  of  Judaism  in  Palestine  and 
in  Babylon  had  regarded  as  objects  of  study  and 
investigation  and  of  teaching  and  learning  during 
the  three  centuries  which  elapsed  from  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Mishnah  to  the  completion  of  the 
Talmud  itself"  ^  With  the  incorporation  of  the 
Mishnah  the  Talmud  became  a  vast  record  of  the 
gradually  developed  and  enriched  oral  tradition. 
As  we  study  its  pages  we  hear  the  debates,  often 
minutely  recorded,  that  went  on  through  successive 
generations  in  the  Jewish  schools.  Its  astonishingly 
varied  contents,  and  wealth  of  detail  on  all  sorts  of 
subjects,  show  that,  academic  as  it  is  in  spirit,  the 
Jewish  scholars  were  in  contact  with  the  popular  life, 
details  of  which  are  often  minutely  described.  It 
thus  constitutes  an  important  source  for  the  history 
of  civilisation,  not  to  speak  of  its  excursions  into 
the  most  varied  branches  of  human  knowledge — 
astronomy  and  medicine,  mathematics  and  law, 
anatomy  and  botany — which  furnish  valuable  data 
for  the  history  of  science. 

The  Talmud,  in  its  finally  redacted  form,  bridges 
the  Judaism  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  later  period. 
But  it  did  not  remain  a  mere  literary  monument. 
It  became  a  formative  factor  of  the  most  decisive 
kind  in  the  further  development  of  Judaism  in  the 
post-Talmudic  period.  It  acquired  high  authority  as 
a  religious  thesaurus,  "equal  to  the  Bible  itself  as  a 
source  of  instruction    and   decision    in   problems   of 

1  Fdr  details  see  below,  pp.  131  fif. 

2  Bacher  m  JE^  ibid.  24/?. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  87 

religion."  It  thus  became  the  basis  for  systematic 
epitomes  or  expositions  of  religious  duties  and  truths 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  later  times.  The  study  of  it 
determined,  to  a  large  extent,  for  centuries  the  very 
fibre  of  Jewish  thought  and  the  forms  of  Jewish 
intellectual  activity.  Its  subtleties  served  to  sharpen 
to  an  extraordinary  acuteness  the  minds  of  its 
devoted  students.  Nor  has  it,  even  yet,  lost  its 
historical  importance  for  Judaism.  Though  many 
Jews  have,  during  the  last  century,  absorbed  modern 
culture  and  neglected  Talmudic  studies,  the  Talmud 
is  to-day,  for  masses  of  Jews,  the  supreme  authority 
in  religion.  The  ministers  and  Rabbis  of  modern 
Jewry  must  possess  a  competent  knowledge  of  their 
traditional  literature,  and,  above  all,  of  the  Talmud, 
which  is  still,  with  the  Bible,  the  most  venerated 
religious  authority  among  orthodox  Jews. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  Talmud 
(with  the  Mishnah)  was  in  its  origin  a  compilation  of 
the  oral  Law.  As  such  it  was  clearly  marked  off 
from  the  canonical  Scripture,  which  was  handed 
down  in  written  form.  The  distinction  was  clearly 
marked  in  Rabbinical  terminology,  '*  the  Torah  by 
mouth  "  (hd  S^ntr  niin)  being  distinguished  from 
"the  Torah  in  writing"  dn^ltl^  niin)'  which  was 
embodied  in  the  canonical  Pentateuch.^ 

The  Oral  Law  was  regarded  by  the  later  Rabbis 
as  going  back  to  Moses  himself.  Thus  a  saying 
attributed  to  R.  Simeon  ben  Lakish  (third  century 
A.D.)  runs  : 

"  What  is  that  which  is  written  :  /  will  give  thee  tables  oj 
stone^   and  the  Law,   and  the    commandment    which   I   have 

1  In  the  first  instance  the  Pentateuch  formed  the  sole  con- 
tents of  canonical  Scripture.  Later  the  Prophets  and  Hagio- 
grapha  were  added,  but  were  not  put  on  the  same  level  of 
authority,  being  regarded  as  "  Tradition  "  (Kabbalah),  though  of 
course  in  a  written  form. 


88    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

written  to  teach  them  (Ex.  xxiv.  12)?  'Tables,'  these  are  the 
ten  words  ;  '  Law,'  that  is  the  Scripture  ;  '  and  the  command- 
ment,' that  is  the  Mishnah  ;  '  which  I  have  written,'  these  are 
the  Prophets  and  Writings  (Hagiographa) ;  ^  'to  teach  them,' 
that  is  the  Gemara  :  thus  instructing  us  that  all  these  were 
given  to  Moses  from  Sinai "  (T.B.  Ber.  ^a). 

The  real  beginnings  of  the  Oral  Law  are,  no 
doubt,  to  be  placed  in  the  early  post-Exilic  period, 
when  the  written  Torah  of  Moses,  as  canonical 
Scripture,  was  read  and  expounded  in  the  syna- 
gogues. From  small  beginnings  this  gradually  grew, 
being  developed  and  modified  from  time  to  time  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  changing  circumstances, 
till,  after  being  subjected  for  some  centuries  to  these 
varying  influences,  it  first  assumed  a  fixed  and 
official  form  in  the  Mishnah  promulgated  by  the 
patriarch  Judah  I.  about  A.D.  190-200.  This  final 
form  of  the  Mishnah,  it  must  be  remembered,  had 
been  preceded  by  earlier  attempts  at  codification, 
which  prepared  the  way  for  R.  Judah's  work.  The 
later  developments  of  the  oral  tradition,  which  took 
the  text  of  the  Mishnah  as  the  basis  for  further  dis- 
cussions and  commentary,  have  already  been  referred 
to  above. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  extraordinarily  varied 
contents  of  the  Talmud.  A  broad  distinction  is  drawn,  in  this 
connexion,  between  the  Halakah  and  Haggadah.^  The  former 
term,  which  means  "rule,"  is  applied  primarily  to  laws  which 
are  of  a  binding  character,  but  in  an  extended  sense  it  em- 
braces not  only  the  laws  themselves,  but  also  "  all  expositions, 
discussions,  and  reports  which  have  the  object  of  explaining, 
establishing,  and  determining  legal  principles  and  provisions."  ^ 
Hence  it  comprises  all  the  legal  portions  of  the  Talmudic 
literature.  The  actual  Halakah  includes,  of  course,  all  that 
belongs  to  the  strictly  legal  or  ritual  element  in  Scripture,  or 
can  be  deduced  therefrom.     "The   term   extends   also  to  the 

^  Notice  that  the  Prophets  and  Hagiographa  are  distinguished 
here  from  "  Scripture,"  i.e.  the  Pentateuch. 

2  cp.  what  is  said  on  this  point  above,  pp.  60  fif. 

3  Mielziner,  Introduction  to  the  Talfnud,  p.  56. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  89 

usages,  customs  {Minhagim)^  ordinances  {Tekanoth)^  and 
decrees  {Gezeroih)  for  which  there  is  little  or  no  authority  in  the 
Scriptures."^  The  Mishnah,  which  is  essentially  an  inde- 
pendent codification  of  law,  is  almost  exclusively  Halakic  in 
character.  On  the  other  hand,  "  Haggadah  "  (or  'Aggada)^ 
a  term  which  in  its  original  significance  meant,  apparently, 
recitation  {sc.  of  the  Scriptures),  acquired  a  very  extended 
meaning,  embracing  all  that  was  not  included  in  the  Halakah. 
Hence  the  Haggadah  comprises  "  all  historical  records,  all 
legends  and  parables,  all  doctrinal  and  ethical  teachings,  and 
all  free  and  unrestrained  interpretations  of  Scripture"^  which 
are  non- Halakic  in  character.  It  is  also  applied  to  such 
subjects  as  astronomy,  medicine  and  magic,  theosophy  and 
mysticism,  and  everything  connected  with  folk-lore. 

Before  we  proceed  to  discuss  the  difTerent  strata 
which  make  up  the  Talmudic  literature,  something 
must  be  said  about  the  Jewish  scholars  who  are 
referred  to  as  authorities  in  this  literature.  These 
may  be  classified  into  two  main  groups,  viz.  {a)  those 
referred  to  in  the  Mishnah  and  the  allied  literature, 
and  [b)  those  referred  to  in  the  Talmuds. 

{a)   AUTHORITIES    REFERRED    TO    IN    THE    MISHNAH 
AND   THE    ALLIED    LITERATURE 

The  Mishnah  and  the  Rabbinical  literature  more 
or  less  contemporary  with  it,  i.e.  the  Tosephta  and 
the  Baraithas,*  which  embody  the  earliest  compila- 
tions of  the  traditional'material,  mention  the  follow- 
ing as  authorities  :  (i)  The  Sopherim  or  "  Scribes  "  ; 
(ii)  the  Zngoth  or  "  Pairs  "  ;  and  (iii)  the  Tannaim  or 
"  Teachers." 

(i)  The  Sopherim.  This  term  is  traditionally 
applied    to    the    authorities    who    transmitted    and 

1  Schechter  in  Hastings's  DB  v.  (extra  vol.),  p.  58^. 

-  The  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  forms  are  rvnr^  rna«  and  wm^w. 
The  Hiphil  (Aram.  Aphel)  of  the  verb  i;;  =  to  narrate  ;  hence 
the  noun  =  recitatio7t.,  fiarration.,  and  may  be  applied  to  a  tale 
or  anything  related  which  has  no  binding  authority. 

^  Mielziner,  op.  cit.  p.  56  f. 

*  See  below  for  details  of  these  branches,  pp.  108  fF.,  m.  C 


90    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

expounded  the  Law  from  the  days  of  Ezra  to  the 
time  of  Simon  the  Just  (who  flourished  about  300- 
270  B.C.).  The  name  "Sopher"  (plur.  "  Sopherim  ") 
means  "  Bookman,"  i.e.  one  who  taught  out  of  the 
"  Book  "  (Heb.  Sepher)  of  the  Law.  The  name  was 
given  to  the  successors  of  Ezra,  who  not  only 
guarded  and  transmitted  "  the  Book  of  the  Law " 
{i.e.  the  Pentateuch),^  but  were  also  its  official  inter- 
preters and  administrators.  These  "  Sopherim  "  were 
originally  priests;  "scribe  and  priest"  was  a  com- 
bination that  persisted  long  after  Ezra — in  fact,  as 
has  been  pointed  out,  down  to  the  time  of  Simon  the 
Just.  The  latter  was  himself  high-priest  and  also 
head  of  the  "  Sopherim  "  ;  but  at  his  death  {c.  270 
B.C.)  the  organisation  of  this  closely  knit  priestly 
body  seems  to  have  broken  down,  and  as  an  official 
body  its  activities  probably  ceased. 

Doubtless  individual  priests  were  active  in  the 
work  of  transmitting  the  Law  after  this  period,  but 
only  as  individuals,  animated  by  piety.  It  was 
perhaps  during  the  interval  270-190  B.C.  that  a  class 
of  pious  laymen  arose,  who  became  teachers  of  the 
Law,  and  were  the  progenitors  of  the  later  Pharisaic 
party.  When  it  became  necessiry  to  set  up  a  new 
authoritative  body — the  Sanhedrin — its  members 
were  composed  of  priests  and  laymen,  with  the  high- 
priest  as  its  official  head.  The  Sanhedrin  was  prob- 
ably organised  about  190  B.C.  Henceforth  the 
Rabbinical  teachers,  who  were  laymen  as  a  rule, 
were  active  and  influential.  They  must  be  carefully 
distinguished,  as,  in  fact,  they  are  carefully  distin- 
guished in  the  Rabbinical  literature,  from  the  early 
"  Sopherim,"  who  were  priests.^ 

^  They  were  responsible  for  transmitting  the  text  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  the  Scrolls. 

'^  See  further  the  article  "  Pharisees "  (by  G.  H.  Box)  in 
Hastings's  ERE  ix.  831  ff.,  and  also  an  article  by  the  same 
writer  in  the  Expositor  iox  June,  1918,  "Scribes  and  Sadducees 
in  the  New  Testament,"  p.  402  f. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  91 

Simon  the  Just  was  the  last  of  the  old  Sopherim 
acting  as  a  close  and  authoritative  body  of  priests. 
The  evidence  for  this  fact  is  contained  in  a  sentence 
of  the  Mishnah  tractate  Pirke  A  both  (i.  2  J,  which, 
referring  to  Simon,  states  that  he  was  "of  the 
remnants  of  the  Great  Synagogue,"  i.e.  among  its 
last  survivors.  It  is  highly  probable  that  "the  men 
of  the  Great  Synagogue  "  of  Rabbinical  tradition  are 
to  be  identified  with  the  "  Sopherim."  It  is  repre- 
sented to  have  been  a  synod  consisting  of  120 
members.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  such  an 
assembly  ever  really  existed.  The  element  of  truth 
underlying  the  tradition  may  be  that  an  authori- 
tative body  of  priestly  Sopherim  did  exist  and  was 
active  during  the  period  referred  to  above.  To  the 
"  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue "  many  "  sayings, 
ordinances,  and  decrees  are  attributed  ;  such  as  the 
arrangement  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon,  the 
reading  of  the  Law  on  certain  days  of  the  week, 
the  arrangement  [in  its  earliest  form]  of  the  daily 
prayers,  saying  of  grace  after  meals."  ^  and  other 
matters,  and  doubtless  there  is  a  substratum  of  truth 
in  these  statements. 

The  chain  of  tradition  is  described  in  the  following 
passage,  which  forms  the  opening  paragraph  of  the 
tractate  Pirke  A  both  (i.  i)  : 

"  Moses  received  the  Torah  from  Sinai,  and  he  delivered  it  to 
Joshua,  and  Joshua  to  the  Elders  (Josh.  xxiv.  21  ;  Judges  ii.  i), 
and  the  Elders  to  the  Prophets,  and  the  Prophets  dehvered  it 
to  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue.      They  said  three  things 
'  Be  deliberate  in  judgement'  ;  and  '  Raise  up  many  disciples 
and  '  Make  a  fence  to  the  Torah.' " 

The  second  of  these  sayings  suggests  that  the 
Sopherim  were  active  in  the  work  of  teaching  and 
expounding  the  Law.  Probably,  however,  their 
exposition  of  the  Law  was  simple  and  plain  in 
character,  without  any  of  the  elaborate  amplifications 

1  cp.  RIVS\  p.  56f. 


92    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

and  deductions  that  marked  the  work  of  the  later 
Rabbinical  teachers.  No  great  amount  of  readjust- 
ment was  required  while  the  community  was  small 
and  compact,  and  undisturbed  by  the  invasion  of  new 
and  revolutionary  influences.  These  came  later  with 
the  rising  tide  of  Hellenism  ;  and  when  they  came 
necessitated  a  total  reorganisation  of  the  Jewish 
community. 

The  earlier  Sopherim  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  "Scribes"  of  the  New  Testament  period,  who  were  the 
purely  professional  class  who  possessed  an  expert  knowledge  of 
the  Law,  and  were  able  to  administer  it.  Though  some  priests 
may  have  been  included  in  the  scribal  class  of  the  New 
Testament  period,  the  Scribes  were  predominantly  laymen  of 
the  class  of  the  Rabbinical  teachers.^  Though  the  earlier 
Sopherim  were  primarily  concerned  with  the  Law  (Pentateuch), 
which  was  regarded  by  them  as  Scripture  par  excellence^  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  they  refused  to  recognise  the  other 
collections  of  sacred  writings  embodied  in  the  Prophets  and 
Hagiographa.  On  the  contrary,  the  evidence  suggests  that 
they  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  these  collections 
and  their  embodiment  in  the  Canon  of  Scripture.  Only  it  must 
be  remembered  that  these  other  parts  of  Scripture  were  never 
put  by  them  on  a  level  with  the  Law.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
some  of  the  work  of  the  earlier  Sopherim  {e.g.  Ps.  cxix.)  is 
included  in  these  later  collections.  Their  outlook  was  broad 
and  humanistic — they  seem  to  have  been  much  influenced  by 
the  class  of  the  "  Wise."  Ben  Sira  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded 
as  inheriting  their  tradition.  His  picture  of  the  "Scribe" 
(Ecclus.  xxviii.  34  ff.)  shows  that  a  broad  culture  and  wide 
interests  were  the  marks  of  the  ideal  Scribe.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  Ben  Sira  quotes  freely  from  all  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
not  merely  from  the  Pentateuch. 

The  chain  of  tradition  is  continued  in  Pirke  Aboth 
with  the  mention  of  Antigonus  of  Soko,  who  is  stated 
to  have  continued  the  tradition  of  Simon  the  Just. 

"Antigonus  of  Soko  received  from  Simon  the  Just.  He  used 
to  say  :  '  Be  not  as  slaves  that  minister  to  the  lord  to  receive 
recompense  ;  but  be  as  slaves  that  minister  to  the  lord  without 
a  view  to  receive  recompense  ;  and  let  the  fear  of  Heaven  be 
upon  you.'" 

1  See  further  the  Expositor  article  above  referred  to. 


THE  TALMUDTC  LITERATURE  93 

Of  Antigonus  nothing  further  is  known.  He  may 
have  been  one  of  the  pious  laymen  who  continued 
the  work  of  the  Sopherim,  and  as  such  stands  here 
in  a  representative  capacity  for  many  others  whose 
names  have  not  been  preserved.  He  forms  the  con- 
necting Hnk  between  the  Sopherim  and  the  "  Pairs." 

(ii)  The  "Pairs."  This  name  (Heb.  rii:i^t  = 
Greek  Tmv^ov)  is  given  to  the  leading  teachers  of  the 
Rabbinical  class  who  flourished  between  the  Macca- 
baean  age  and  the  Herodian  epoch  {c.  150-30  B.C.). 

The  following  five  "  pairs "  are  mentioned,  and  in 
this  order  (bridging  five  generations):  (i)  Jose  b. 
Joezer  of  Zereda  and  Jochanan  of  Jerusalem  ;  (2) 
Joshua  b.  Perachya  and  Nittai  of  Arbela  ;  (3)  Jehuda 
b.  Tabbai  and  Shim'on  b.  Shetach ;  (4)  Shema'ya 
and  'Abtalyon  ;  (5)  Hillel  and  Shammai. 

According  to  tradition,  the  two  mentioned  in  each 
case  occupied  the  position  of  heads  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
the  one  mentioned  first  being  the  President  {Nasi), 
the  second  mentioned  in  each  case  being  the  Vice- 
President  {Ab  beth  din).  This  is  certainly  not  true 
of  the  official  Sanhedrin,  which  down  to  New  Testa- 
ment times,  and,  indeed,  to  the  last  days  of  Jeru- 
salem (a.D.  66-70),  was  presided  over  by  the  high- 
priest  ex  officio.  What  underlies  the  tradition  may 
possibly  be  the  fact  that  the  teachers  enumerated  in 
the  "  pairs  "  really  stood  at  the  head  of  the  organised 
Rabbinical  schools,  and  were,  according  to  Rabbinical 
theory,  the  rightful  bearers  of  the  functions  entrusted 
to  the  heads  of  the  Sanhedrin.  Several  of  these 
names  are  distinguished  in  the  history  of  Judaism 
(especially  Shim'on  b.  Shetach,  Shema'ya  and  'Ab- 
talyon), but  the  most  important  are  those  of  Hillel 
and  Shammai.  Both  these  great  teachers  founded 
schools,  which  were  called  after  them  "  the  school  of 
Hillel"  and  "the  school  of  Shammai"  {Beth  Hillel 
and  Beth  Shammai).  The  controversies  between  the 
latter    figure    prominently    in    the    Mishnah.     Both 


94    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

teachers  were  active  in  the  Halakic  development  of 
the  Torah,  and  it  was   Hillel  who    framed    the   first 
exegetical    rules    (seven    in    number,   afterwards    ex- 
tended to  thirteen,  and  later  still  further  expanded). 
(iii)  The   Tannaim    (□'^^^n)    ^r    "  Teachers,"    a 

name  given  to  the  doctors  of  the  Mishnah,^  may  be 
traced  from  the  rise  of  the  rival  schools  of  Hillel  and 
Shammai,  i.e.  from  about  A.D.  lo,^  down  to  the  close 
of  the  career  of  Judah  I.  {c.  A.D.  220).  The  period, 
however,  of  their  greatest  activity  falls  between  the 
years  A.D.  70-200  (from  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple).  Between  these  dates  some  120  of  these 
teachers  flourished,  who  may  be  grouped  con- 
veniently into  four  generations.  It  will  only  be 
possible  to  note  under  each  generation  a  few  of  the 
more  prominent  names. 

(i)  The  first  generation  {^k.V>.yo-\Q6).  The  greatest 
figure  at  this  time  among  the  Rabbinical  teachers 
was  the  famous  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai,  who  founded 
the  college  at  Jamnia  where  Judaism  was  recon- 
stituted. Jochanan  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
peace  party  in  the  disastrous  war  with  Rome  (A.D. 
66-70).^ 

(2)  The  second  generation  {a.T>.  lOO-iT^o).  Jochanan 
b.  Zakkai  was  succeeded  as  head  of  the  Academy  at 
Jamnia  by  Rabban  Gamaliel  II.  (perhaps  a  grandson 
of  Gamaliel  I.),  a  man  of  masterful  character.  To 
this  period  also  belong  the  five  famous  disciples  of 
Jochanan  b.  Zakkai,  viz.  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanus, 
brother-in-law  of  Gamaliel  II.,  and  head  of  a  school 
at  Lydda,  Joshua  ben    Chananya,*   Jose   the    Priest, 

1  7)i««5  ("Teacher")  does  not  occur  in  the  Mishnah  itself 
It  was  applied  to  the  scholars  mentioned  in  the  Mishnah  by 
later  generations. 

2  Rabban  Gamaliel  I  (mentioned  in  Acts  v.  34,  39)  flourished 
in  this  earher  period.     He  was  a  grandson  of  Hillel. 

^  Jochanan  b.  Zakkai  belonged  to  the  school  of  Hillel. 
*  These   two   authorities   are   constantly  referred  to   in  the 
Mishnah  as  "R.  Eliezer"  and  "  R.  Joshua"  respectively. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  95 

Simeon  ben  Nathanael,  and  Eleazar  ben  Arak.  To 
this  generation  also  belong  R.  Eliezer  b.  Jacob  I.; 
famous  as  an  authority  on  matters  connected  with 
the  structure  and  services  of  the  Temple  (in  which  he 
had  participated),  and  Eliezer  b.  'Azarya,  who  traced 
his  pedigree  to  Ezra  the  Scribe.  From  the  younger 
members  of  this  generation  sprang  its  most  domi- 
nating figure — Akiba,  who  met  a  martyr's  death  in 
the  later  insurrection  against  Rome  organised  by 
Bar-Cochba  (a.d.  i 31-135).  Akiba,  who  compiled 
an  earlier  form  of  the  Mishnah,  which  was  afterwards 
expanded  by  Judah  I.,  was  the  great  champion  of  a 
severely  literal  exegesis.  He  maintained  the  prin- 
ciple that  every  detail  of  the  sacred  text,  even  the 
minutest,  was  significant.^  Another  famous  contem- 
porary was  R.  Ishmael  b.  Elisha,  who  founded  a 
school  at  Usha  where  Midrash  studies  were  culti- 
vated, and  from  which  various  Midrashini  emanated. 
Against  Akiba  he  maintained  the  principle  that  the 
language  of  Scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  by  the 
standards  of  human  speech,  and  that  details  are  not 
to  be  unduly  pressed.  R.  Ishmael  also  developed 
Hillel's  seven  rules  of  interpretation  into  thirteen. 
Other  famous  contemporaries  were  R.  Tarphon,  R. 
Jose  of  Galilee,  Simon  b.  Azzai,  the  last  of  whom 
entered  with  Ben  Zoma,  Elisha  b.  Abuya,  and  Akiba 
into  "  Paradise,"  i.e.  engaged  in  mystical  and  theo- 
sophic  speculation.  Elisha  b.  Abuya,  who  is  often 
referred  to  as  "  Acher "  {i.e.  "  the  other  one "), 
ultimately  apostatised  from  Judaism.  He  may  be 
regarded  as  the  Faust  of  the  Talmud. 

(3)  The  third  generation  (A.D.  130-160).  The  most 
important  of  R.  Ishmael's  disciples  were  R.  Josiah 
and  R.  Jonathan,  who  are  often  referred  to  in  the 
early  Midrashini  {Mekiita  and  Sifre),  but  not  in  the 
Mishnah.     The  most  important  of  Akiba's  disciples 

^  Akiba's  principles  of  interpretation  influenced  the  new 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  made  by  Aquila. 


96    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

was  R.  Meir,  who  is  mentioned  no  fewer  than  330 
times  in  the  Mishnah  and  452  times  in  the  Tosephta. 
For  a  time  Meir  was  a  pupil  of  R.  Ishmael,  but 
afterwards  of  Akiba.  He  Hved  mostly  at,  or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of,  Tiberias.  He  was  responsible  for 
a  redaction  of  the  early  Mishnah  of  Akiba,  and  it 
was  Meir's  edition  of  this  which  was  ultimately 
worked  up  by  Judah  I.  Other  famous  disciples  ot 
Akiba  were :  R.  Simon  b.  Jochai — referred  to  in  the 
Mishnah  1  always  as  "  R.  Simon"  simply — R.  Jose 
ben  Chalaphta  (in  the  Mishnah  2  always  "  R.  Jose  "), 
R.  Jehuda  ben  Ilai  (in  the  Mishnah^  always  "  R. 
Jehuda"  simply).  Of  these  Simon  ben  Jochai  is 
traditionally  connected  with  the  mystical  literature. 
He  figures  prominently  in  the  traditions  of  Oriental 
Judaism,  especially  in  those  of  Persia.  From  Jehuda 
b.  Ilai  the  groundwork  of  the  early  Midrash  Sifra{or\ 
Leviticus)  is  derived.  Mention  may  also  be  made 
here  of  R.  Eliezer,  son  of  Rabbi  Jose  of  Galilee,  who 
was  a  famous  Haggadist,  and  R.  Simon  H.,  son  of 
Gamaliel  II.  and  father  of  the  Patriarch  Judah  I. 

(4)  The  fourth  generation  (a.D.  160-200).  The 
great  figure  of  this  period  was  the  Patriarch  Judah 
the  Prince  {Nasi),  often  referred  to  as  Rabbi  without 
further  qualification.  He  is  famous  as  the  compiler 
of  the  most  authoritative  form  of  the  Mishnah, 
which,  with  some  slight  later  additions,  is  identical 
with  the  one  that  has  been  handed  down  to  later 
generations.  Judah  was  a  man  of  wide  culture  and 
sympathies,  and  dispensed  a  lavish  hospitality.  He 
is  one  of  the  most  impressive  and  attractive  figures  in 
the  whole  history  of  Judaism.  Himself  the  disciple 
of  Simon  b.  Jochai  and  of  Eleazar  ben  Shammua,'^ 

^  Some  325  times.  ^  Some  330  times. 

^  More  than  6cx)  times. 

*  Referred  to  in  the  Mishnah  as  "  R.  Eleazar "  simply.  He 
was  JDorn  near  Alexandria  and  was  a  disciple  of  Akiba,  whom 
he  visited  in  prison. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  97 

he  surrounded  himself  with  a  band  of  able  scholars 
and  disciples.  In  virtue  of  his  office  he  presided 
over  the  later  (Rabbinical)  Sanhedrin,  which  in  his 
time  seems  to  have  moved  about  from  place  to 
place — from  Usha  to  Beth  Shearim,  and  thence  to 
Sepphoris  and  Tiberias.  Among  the  Patriarch's 
colleagues  may  be  mentioned  R.  Nathan  ha-Babli 
("  the  Babylonian  "),  who  had  emigrated  from  Baby- 
lonia to  Palestine.  Possibly  the  recension  of  the 
tractate  Aboth  which  underlies  the  text  of  the  A  both 
de  Rabbi  Nat/tan  goes  back  to  him.  Symmachus 
ben  Joseph,  a  famous  Halakist  and  a  disciple  of 
Meir,  also  belongs  to  this  period,  as  does  the  ascetic 
R.  Pinchas  (Phinehas)  ben  Jair,  to  whom  miracles 
were  attributed.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  later 
Midrash  known  as  Tads  he. 

Some  scholars,  e.g.  Strack,  assign  to  a  fifth  generation  the 
younger  contemporaries  of  the  Patriarch  Judah  who  survived 
him,  and  who  gave  final  authoritative  recognition  to  the 
Mishnah.  They  form  a  group  which  is  transitional  to  the 
Amoraim,  and  may  be  classed  as  "half-Tannaites."  At  their 
head  stands  Gamaliel  III.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Judah  I. 
Others  belonging  to  this  group  are  :  R.  Chiyya,  the  disciple 
and  friend  of  Judah,  a  Babylonian  who,  late  in  fife,  emigrated  to 
Palestine  and  settled  in  Tiberias  ;  he  took  part  in  the  redaction 
of  the  Halakic  Midrash  on  Leviticus  known  as  Sifra  ;  and  bar 
Kappara,  who  presided  over  a  school  in  Cassarea. 

The  outcome  of  the  labours  of  these  various  gene- 
rations of  Tannaim  and  of  their  predecessors  was  the 
Mishnah  with  its  allied  literature,  to  the  consideration 
of  which  we  now  proceed. 

(ii)   The  Mishnah,  Tosephta,  and  Baraithas 

[Special  Literature  :  {a)  Editions  of  the  Mishnah  Text. 
The  best  text  is  that  edited  by  W.  H.  Lowe,  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  above.  A  classical  edition  is  that  of  Surenhusius, 
6  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1698-1703  (Hebrew  text  with  Latin  trans- 
lation and  commentaries).  An  edition,  with  pointed  Hebrew 
text  and  German  translation  in  parallel  columns,  has  been 
appearing  (in  Berlin)  since  1885  (edited  by  Sammter  and  others). 

H 


98    RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Valuable  editions  of  separate  treatises  have  been  edited  by 
Strack,  and  an  edition  of  the  tractate  Pirke  A  both  ("  Sayings  of 
the  Jewish  Fathers")  by  Dr.  C  Taylor  (2nd  ed.,  Cambridge, 
1897);  also  an  edition  (with  English  translation  and  notes)  of 
the  tractate  'Abodah  zara  ("The  Mishnah  on  Idolatry")  by 
W.  A.  L.  Ehnslie  ("Text  and  Studies"  series,  Cambridge,  191 1). 
The  text  of  the  Tosephta  has  been  published  complete  by 
Zuckermandel  (1880-82).  An  edition  of  the  Tosephta  tractate 
Berakoth  (text,  translation,  and  explanations)  appeared  in  191 2 
edited  by  Oscar  Holtzmann  (Giessen,  Topelmann). 

{b)  Translations.  Of  EngHsh  translations  the  following  call  for 
mention  :  Eighteen  Treatises  of  the  Alishna^  translated  by 
De  Sola  and  Raphall  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1845)  5  eighteen 
tractates  translated  by  J.  Barclay  and  published  in  a  volume 
under  the  title  The  Talmud  (London,  1878).  A  German  trans- 
lation of  the  Tosephta  tractate  Berakoth  (by  H.  Laible)  ap- 
peared in  1902. 

{c)  Discussions^  articles.,  etc.  Graetz,  History  of  the  Jews., 
English  translation,  vol.  ii.,  chaps.  13-17  ;  the  article  "  Mishnah" 
in  Encycl.  Brit.  xvi.  502  (9th  ed.),  by  Dr.  Schiller-Szinessy  ; 
the  articles  "Tosefta"  and  "  Baraita "  (together  with  the 
literature  cited)  in  JE  xii.  207-209  and  ii.  513-516.  An 
important  work  has  been  published  by  Zuckermandel  under 
the  title  Tosefta.,  Mish?ta.,  uftd  Baraitha  ifi  ihret7i  Verhdltniss 
zu  einander  (2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1908).] 

[a)   THE   MISHNAH 

The  name  "  Mishnah "  is  a  Hebrew  term  derived 
from  a  verb  {shanaJi)  which  means  "to  repeat,"  and 
then  "to  learn"  or  "teach"  by  repetition.  It  thus 
came  to  mean  "  teaching  "  (by  oral  repetition).^  The 
text  of  the  Mishnah  is  arranged  in  six  parts  or  orders 
(Heb.  sMdrim,  sing,  seder).  Each  order  {seder)  is 
divided  into  tractates  (inassektoth'^\  and  each  trac- 
tate into  chapters  {perakim^),  and  each  perek  into 
paragraphs,  which  are  called  individually  a  Mishnah, 

^  Such  traditions  {Mishnay-  Yoth)  are  termed  Sfurepcbcreiy,  i.e. 
"repetitions,"  in  the  Patristic  literature, ^.^.  Jerome,^/.  121  ("  I 
would  fail  to  tell  of  the  multitude  of  the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees 
which  are  now  called  Sevreptoo-cty  ").     See  BIVS%  p.  59,  note. 

2  Plur.  of  masse/ceth  (riDDo,  Aram.  ^riDDn),  from  a  root  meaning 
"  to  weave  "  ;  cp.  Latin  textus. 

^  Perek  =  "joint." 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  99 

The  six  sedarim  or  orders  are  as  follows : 

(i)  Seder  Zera'im,  or  "  Seeds,"  contains  tractates 
dealing  mainly  with  the  laws  connected  with  agri- 
culture. But  the  opening  tractate  of  this  seder  treats 
of  prayer  [Berakoth  =  "  Blessings  "). 

(ii)  Seder  Mo'ed  {Mo'ed  =  ''  Festival ")  deals  with 
the  festivals,  including  the  Sabbath. 

(iii)  Seder  Nashim  ("  Women ")  is  mainly  con- 
cerned with  marriage  laws,  but  includes  two  tractates 
on  vows. 

(iv)  Seder  Nezikin  ("  Damages ")  is  mainly  con- 
cerned with  civil  and  criminal  law. 

(v)  Seder  KodasJiim  ("  Holy  Things  ")  deals  mainly 
with  the  laws  of  sacrifice.  It  includes  an  interesting 
and  valuable  tractate  {Middoth)  on  the  structure  and 
dimensions  of  the  Temple,  based  upon  tradition. 

(vi)  Seder  Toharoth  (*'  Purifications ")  deals  with 
the  laws  of  personal  and  ritual  purification. 

In  all,  the  six  Sedarim^  contain  sixty-three  tractates,  as 
follows  : 

(i)  Seder  ZeraHni  (eleven  tractates) 

1.  Berakoth  {r^'T\i  —  Blessings  or  Benedictions).  This  tractate 
treats  of  liturgical  matters,  at  what  times  prayers  should  be 
offered,  on  what  occasions,  and  in  what  places,  etc.  It  contains 
nine  chapters. 

2.  Pe'ah  (ni^D  =  Corner)  deals  with  the  questions  relating  to 
"the  corners  of  the  field"  (Lev.  xix.  9  ;  cf.  Deut.  xxiv.  19,  21) 
and  the  rights  of  the  poor  in  connexion  therewith.  It  contains 
eight  chapters. 

3.  Demai  or  Dainmai  (>t<oi  =  Uncertain)  discusses  questions 
concerning  corn  and  various  fruits  from  which  it  is  doubtful 
whether  or  not  tithes  should  be  given  to  the  priests. 

4.  KiPayi7n  (d^nVd  =  Mixtures).  This  tractate  discusses  the 
problems  involved  in  giving  effect  to  the  injunction  of  Lev.  xix. 
19  :  Thou  shalt  not  let  thy  cattle  gander  with  a  diverse  kind; 
thou  shalt  not  sow  thy  field  with  two  kinds  of  seed;  neither  shall 

^  Heb.  nniD  rro^j  contracted  to  d'^i',  which  in  later  editions  of 
the  Talmud  is  frequently  substituted  for  h«"\m.  Hence  Shas  is  a 
popular  designation  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

H    2 


100  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

there  co7ne  upon  thee  a  garment  of  two  kinds  of  stuff  7ni7igled 
together  icf.  Deut.  xxii.  9-1 1).     It  contains  nine  chapters. 

5.  ShebiHth  (n^y^iiij  =  Seventh,  i.e.  "  Seventh  "  or  "  Sabbatical " 
year).  The  subject-matter  of  this  tractate  is  concerned  with  the 
command  of  Ex.  xxiii.  1 1  :  The  seventh  year  thou  shalt  let  it  [thy 
land]  rest  and  lie  fallow  {cf.  Lev.  xxiii.  1-8)  ;  the  last  chapter 
deals  with  the  question  of  the  remission  of  debts  at  the  end  of 
this  year  {cf.  Deut.  xv.  1-3).     It  contains  ten  chapters. 

6.  Terumoth  (nim-in  =  Heave-offeri?tgs).  The  whole  subject 
of  heave-offerings  is  explained  and  discussed  in  this  tractate. 
The  text  for  the  discussion  is  Num.  xviii.  8-20  [cf.  Deut.  xviii.  4). 
It  contains  eleven  chapters. 

7.  Ma'asroth  (mnwn  =  Tenths,  Tithes)  deals  with  the  tithes 
due  to  the  Levites  {cf  Num.  xviii.  21-24).  It  contains  five 
chapters. 

8.  Ma''aser  shetii  (>3'a:  -i^o  =  Seco?td  Tithe).  The  subject  of 
this  tractate — "  second  tithe  " — is  closely  connected  with  that 
of  the  tractate  immediately  preceding  {cf  Deut.  xiv.  22-29  5 
xxvi.  12-13).     It  contains  five  chapters. 

9.  Challah  {rbT\  =  Dough).  In  Num.  xv.  21  the  injunction  is 
given  :  Of  the  first  of  your  dough  ye  shall  give  unto  the  Lord  an 
heave-offering  throughout  your  generations.  The  subject-matter 
of  this  command  is  fully  discussed  in  this  tractate,  and  the  use 
of  leaven  is  fully  dealt  with.     It  contains  four  chapters. 

10.  ^Orlah  {rtns  =  Foreskin  [puds,  frst-fruit])  deals  with  the 
command  not  to  eat  the  fruit  of  trees  during  the  first  three 
years,  during  which  they  are  to  be  "  uncircumcised  "  {cf  Lev. 
xix.  23  ff.).  The  last  chapter  refers  to  the  prevalence  of  this 
custom  outside  the  land  of  Israel  (in  Syria  and  elsewhere).  It 
contains  three  chapters. 

11.  Bikkurim  (nniDi,  First-fruits)  deals  with  the  first-fruits 
which  were  to  be  brought  to  the  Temple  {cf  Deut.  xxvi.  i  ff.; 
Ex.  xxiii.  19).     It  contains  three  chapters. 

(ii)  5^^^r  il/<?  W  (twelve  tractates) 

1.  Shabbath  (m^>  =  Sabbath)  is  an  elaborate  tractate.  It 
discusses  fully  the  laws  relating  to  the  Sabbath,  predominantly 
the  prohibitions  of  work  {cf.  Ex.  xvi.  22-30;  xx.  10  ;  xxiii.  12, 
etc.).     It  contains  twenty-four  chapters. 

2.  '•Erubin  (pi-ij?  =  Combinations  ox  Amalgamations)  is  really 
an  appendix  to  the  previous  tractate,  dealing  with  one  special 
aspect  of  Sabbath  observance,  viz.  the  ways  in  which  localities 
can  be  artificially  extended  so  as  to  enlarge  the  Sabbath 
boundary  and  evade  the  strict  letter  of  the  law  regarding  a 
Sabbath  day's  journey.     It  contains  ten  chapters. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  loi 

3.  Pesachim  (□>nDD  =  Passovers)  sets  forth  the  laws  regulating 
the  observance  of  the  Passover — the  search  for  and  removal 
of  leaven  on  the  eve  of  the  feast,  the  slaughter  of  the  Passover 
lamb,  its  roasting,  the  service  of  thanksgiving,  etc.  It  contains 
ten  chapters. 

4.  Shekalim  (a^bp^  =  Shekels)  has  for  its  main  subject  the 
Temple-tax  {cf.  Ex.  xxx.  1 1-16)  and  the  various  objects  for  which 
it  was  spent.  It  also  touches  on  other  matters.  It  contains 
eight  chapters. 

5.  Yoma  (hiov  =  The  Day^  sc.  of  Atonement).  One  of  the 
most  interesting  and  valuable  of  the  tractates,  dealing,  as  its 
name  implies,  with  all  that  concerns  the  ritual  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement  as  celebrated  in  the  Temple  {cf.  Lev,  xvi.).  It 
contains  eight  chapters. 

6.  Siikkah  (hdid  =  Booth).  This  interesting  tractate  deals,  as 
its  name  suggests,  with  the  laws  concerning  the  observance  of 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  or  Booths,  and  other  celebrations 
connected  with  the  festival  {cf.  Lev.  xxiii.  34  ff. ;  Num.  xxix.  12  ff.). 
It  contains  eight  chapters. 

7.  Betzah  (ns'2  =  E.gg).,  so  called  from  its  opening  word  ;  but 
the  nature  of  its  contents  is  better  indicated  by  the  alternative 
title  Yom  tob^  /.^'."Feast-day."  It  gives  directions  regarding 
the  different  kinds  of  work  allowed  or  prohibited  on  the 
festivals  {cf.  Ex.  xii.  10).     It  contains  five  chapters. 

8.  Rosh  ha-shiifiah  {r^-y^  -it^-y  =  Head  of  the  Year.,  i.e.  New 
Year)  deals  with  questions  of  the  calendar,  but  more  especially 
with  the  laws  regarding  the  due  observance  of  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  month  {Tishri).,  which  is  the  Jewish  (civil)  new 
year  {cf  Lev.  xxiii.  24  ;  Num.  xxix.  i  ff.).  It  contains  four 
chapters. 

9.  Ta''anith  (rr'^rri  =  Fasting)  deals  with  the  laws  to  be  ob- 
served on  the  fast-days,  together  with  the  liturgical  directions. 
It  contains  four  chapters. 

10.  Megillah  {rhyo  =  Roll).  Megillah  is  the  technical  name 
of  the  "Roll"  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  which  is  read  in  the 
synagogue  on  the  Feast  of  Purim  {cf  Esther  ix.  28).  The 
tractate  treats  of  the  times  appointed  for  the  reading  of  the 
book,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  written  and  read,  and  of 
other  matters,  such  as  the  public  reading  of  the  Law  on  various 
solemn  days  and  other  topics.     It  contains  four  chapters. 

11.  Mo'ed  Katan  Q^p  lyin  =  Mijtor  Feast  or  Season).  This 
tractate  contains  directions  regarding  the  observance  of  the 
middle  days  {i.e.  the  days  between  the  two  first  and  the  two 
last  days  of  the  seven  prescribed)  of  the  Feasts  of  Passover  and 
Tabernacles,  setting  forth  the  kinds  of  work  allowed  and  pro- 
hibited on  those  days.  At  the  end  of  the  tractate  there  is  a 
section  on  mourning  customs.     It  contains  three  chapters. 


102  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

1 2.  Chagigah  {rwyw  =  Festival  offering)  treats  of  the  duty  of 
attending  the  pilgrimage  feasts  at  Jerusalem  (Passover,  Weeks, 
and  Tabernacles),  the  kinds  of  sacrifice  to  be  brought  on  such 
occasions,  and  the  different  degrees  of  defilement  against  which 
the  pilgrims  must  be  on  their  guard.  For  the  pilgrimage  feasts 
see  Ex.  xxiii.  17  ;  Deut.  xvi.  16.     It  contains  three  chapters. 

(iii)  Seder  Nashiin  (seven  tractates) 

1.  Yebamoth  (niD2^  =  Sisters-in-Law^  or  possibly  to  be  pointed 

ram*  =  The  duty  of  Levirate  marriage).     The  main   subjects 

dealt  with  in  this  tractate  are  {a)  Levirate  marriage  {cf.  Deut. 
XXV.  5-10  [Matt.  xxii.  24])  ;  {h)  the  ceremony  of  the  "Chalitzah" 
{cf.  Ruth  iv.  7),  and  all  that  this  involves.  "  Chalitzah  "  means 
the  "drawing  off"  of  the  shoe  {i.e.  sandal).  It  symbolised 
renunciation  of  rights  and  possession  on  the  part  of  the  widow  ; 
{c)  the  forbidden  degrees  in  marriage  {cf  Lev.  xviii.,  etc.).  It 
contains  sixteen  chapters. 

2.  Kethuboth  (mnnD  =  Marriage-deeds).,  as  the  title  implies, 
has  for  its  subject  marriage-deeds  and  marriage-settlements 
{cf  Ex.  xxii.  16).  It  also  deals  with  the  subject  of  divorce.  It 
contains  thirteen  chapters. 

3.  Nedarim  (omD  =  Vows)  treats  of  the  whole  subject  of  vows 
and  their  annulment  on  the  basis  of  Num.  xxx.  It  contains 
eleven  chapters. 

4._  Nazir  (-i>i3  =  Nazirite)  deals  with  the  subject  of  the 
Nazirites  {cf.  Num.  vi.).     It  contains  nine  chapters. 

5.  Sotah  (niQiD  =  Adulteress).  The  subject  of  the  tractate  is 
"the  woman  suspected  of  adultery "  {cf  Num.  v.  11-31).  It 
contains  nine  chapters. 

6.  Gittin  {^^y  =  Divorces)  deals  with  the  procedure  involved 
in  delivering  in  due  form  "  bills  of  divorce,"  the  preparation  of 
such  documents,  their  attestation,  etc.  {cf  Deut.  xxiv.  i).  It 
contains  nine  chapters. 

7.  I<iddushin  {-^my-^  =  Betrothals)  deals  with  the  subject 
implied  by  its  title.     It  contains  four  chapters. 

(iv)  Seder  Nezikin  (ten  tractates) 

1.  Baba  katnma  («op  nqi  =  First  Gate)  ; 

2.  Baba  metzi'a  {^^-^r^  j^n  =  Middle  Gate)  ; 

3.  Baba  bathra  {vc\t\i  w3  =  Last  Gate).  These  three  tractates 
ongmally  formed  a  single  treatise  under  the  general  title  of 
Masseketh  Nezikin  (j>p>^3  nDon),  "Tractate  of  Damages."  When 
the  order  was  compiled,  and  other  tractates  had  to  be  included, 
the  one  on  Damages  was  subdivided  into  three,  bearing  the 
titles  given  above,  and  each  containing  ten  chapters. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  103 

The  three  tractates  are  primarily  concerned  with  questions 
of  law  ;  the  first  deals  with  damages  of  various  kinds  caused 
by  man  or  beasts  for  which  he  is  responsible  {cf.  Ex.  xxi.  18  ff.  ; 
xxii.  5  ff.)  ;  the  second  gives  directions  regarding  the  disposal 
of  property  which  has  been  found,  trusts,  the  prohibition  of 
usury,  etc.,  the  treatment  of  hired  labourers  {cf.  Ex.  xxii.  ;  Lev. 
xix.  13,  etc.)  ;  the  third  is  concerned  with  the  laws  of  property, 
landed  estates,  boundary  marks,  sale  of  land,  etc. 

4.  Simhedrin  (pin:D  =  Courts)  and 

5.  Makkoth  (mDn  =  'S'/rz)^^j-)  anciently  formed  a  single  tractate. 
The  former  deals  with  the  constitution  and  procedure  of  the 
various  courts  of  justice  and  the  administration  of  the  criminal 
law  (capital  punishment,  etc.).  The  latter  has  for  its  subject 
the  infliction  of  corporal  punishment,  the  thirty-nine  stripes 
prescribed  in  the  Law  {cf.  Deut.  xxv.  1-3),  the  punishment  of 
false  witnesses  {cf  Deut.  xix.  16  ff.),  and  the  laws  of  the  cities 
of  refuge  {cf  Num.  xxxv.  10  ff,).  Sanhedrin  contains  eleven, 
and  Makkoth  three,  chapters. 

6.  Shebu^oth  (nwitj  =  Oaths)  deals  with  the  subject  implied 
by  the  title,  viz.  oaths  taken  in  private  or  administered  with 
judicial  sanction  {cf  Lev.  v.  4ff.).     It  contains  eight  chapters. 

7.  ^Eduyyoth{T\Yv,t!=  Testimonies  ox  Evidences).  This  tractate 
is  rather  different  in  character  from  most  of  the  others.  It 
gives  the  testimony  of  later  Rabbinical  authorities  as  to  the 
laws  sanctioned  by  earlier  teachers.  It  is  largely  concerned 
with  the  opposing  opinions  of  the  schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai 
on  a  variety  of  subjects.     It  contains  eight  chapters. 

8.  ''Abodah  zarah  (mt  nnny  =  Strange  worship^  Idolatry) 
contains  the  principles  and  regulations  which  should  govern 
Jews  m  their  attitude  towards  idolatry  and  idolators.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  tractates,  discussing  as  it  does 
the  problems  that  confronted  a  pious  community  in  a  heathen 
environment.     It  contains  five  chapters. 

9.  Aboth  or  Pirke  A  both  (ninw  V"is  =  Sections  of  the  Fathers). 
This  is  not  only  the  best  known,  but  in  many  respects  the  most 
valuable  of  the  Mishnaic  tractates.  The  "  Fathers "  are  the 
Fathers  of  Jewish  tradition,  and  the  treatise  contains  a  collection 
of  their  ethical  maxims.  The  Rabbis  represented  mostly  belong 
to  the  Tannaim.  It  traces  the  "  chain  "  of  tradition,  which  was 
ultimately  embodied  in  the  Oral  Law,  from  its  beginning  in 
Moses,  and  in  this  way  justifies  and  safeguards  its  authority. 
The  whole  tractate  is  included  in  the  Jewish  Prayer  Book,  and 
at  certain  times  is  read  in  the  synagogue  service.  It  con- 
tains five  chapters,  with  an  appendix  ("  The  Perek  of  R. 
Meir"). 

10.  Horayoth  (mmn  =  Teachings.,  Decisions)  deals  with  wrong 
decisions  given  by  authorities  (or  a  court),  and  the  sacrifices 


104  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

thereby  necessitated  if  the  people  acted  on  such  wrong  decisions 
{cf.  Lev.  iv.).     It  contains  three  chapters. 

(v)  Seder  Kodashim  (eleven  tractates) 

1.  Zebachim  (c^nn  =  Sacrifices)  contains  the  laws  relating  to 
sacrifices  and  offerings.  It  is  an  important  source  of  informa- 
tion regarding  the  sacrificial  system  generally  and  its  doctrinal 
significance.     It  contains  fourteen  chapters. 

2.  Me7tachoih  (mn:^  =  Meal-offerings)  deals  with  meal-offer- 
ings and  the  laws  regarding  libations  [cf.  Lev.  ii.;  v.  1 1-12,  etc.; 
Num.  V.  11-31  ;  vi.  12-20  ;  xxviii.  ;  xxix.).  It  contains  thirteen 
chapters. 

3.  Chullin  (pbin  =  Profane  things)  is  mainly  concerned  with 
laws  and  regulations  concerning  the  slaughter  of  animals  for 
ordinary  domestic  {i.e.  non-sacrificial)  use.  It  also  deals  with 
the  general  question  of  eating  animal  food,  and  other  matters. 
It  contains  twelve  chapters. 

4.  Bekoroth  (niiiDi  =  First-borii)  deals  with  the  regulations 
regarding  the  first-born  of  men  and  animals  {cf.  Ex.  xiii.  2, 12-16; 
Lev.  xxvii.  26  f.  ;  Num.  viii.  16-18,  etc.).  It  contains  nine 
chapters. 

5.  ^Araki7i  (p-13?  =  Estimations)  deals  with  valuations  of 
persons  and  things  dedicated  to  the  Temple  {cf.  Lev.  xxvii.  2-8). 
Some  laws  regarding  the  year  of  Jubile  are  also  included 
{cf.  Lev.  XXV.).     It  contains  nine  chapters. 

6.  Temurah  {rr\yor\  =  Exchange)  deals  with  the  laws  regarding 
the  substitution  of  a  "  common "  {i.e.  non-sacred  or  secular) 
animal  for  one  already  dedicated  to  the  altar  {cf.  Lev.  xxvii. 
10,  33).     It  contains  seven  chapters. 

7.  Kerithoth  (mnnp  =  Excisions).  The  sins  which  incur  the 
punishment  of  "  cutting  off"  from  the  people  {cf.  Gen.  xvii.  14  ; 
Ex.  xii.  15,  etc.)  are  discussed  in  this  tractate.  It  contains  six 
chapters. 

8.  MeHlah  (nb»ro  =  Trespass).  The  "trespasses"  here  referred 
to  consist  in  applying  to  secular  use  things  belonging  to  the 
Temple  or  altar  {cf.  Lev.  v.  15  f.).     It  contains  six  chapters. 

9.  Tainid  (toh  shortened  for  i^on  nbiy  =  Conti7iual  Burnt- 
offering).  This  interesting  and  valuable  tractate  gives  details 
relating  to  the  arrangement  and  ritual  of  the  daily  burnt-offering, 
which  was  offered  morning  and  evening  in  the  Temple  {cf 
Ex.  xxix.  38-42  ;  Num.  xxviii.  3-8).  It  contains  valuable 
information  about  the  early  Liturgy,  and  has  seven  chapters. 

10.  Middoth  (min  =  Measuremetits).  A  valuable  tractate, 
embodying  much  sound  tradition  about  the  structure,  buildings, 
etc.,  of  the  Temple.     It  contains  five  chapters. 

11.  Kinnifn  {u-'i'^  =  Birds^  nests)  gives  information  about  the 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  105 

dove-offerings  (two  turtle  doves  or  two  young  pigeons  ^)  which 
might  ])e  offered  on  account  of  poverty,  instead  of  a  lamb,  by  a 
woman  for  purification  after  child-birth  {cf.  Lev.  xii.  8)  ;  the 
same  might  also  be  offered  as  a  free-will  burnt-offering  {cf. 
Lev.  i.  14-17).     It  contains  three  chapters. 

(vi)  Seder  Teharoth  (twelve  tractates) 

1.  Kelim  (n^bo  =  Vessels).  A  long  and  important  tractate 
which  has  for  its  subject  the  different  degrees  of  Levitical 
uncleanness  that  may  attach  to  furniture,  garments,  and  utensils 
of  various  kinds  {cf.  Lev.  xi.  32  ;  Num.  xix.  14  f.  ;  xxxi.  20  f.).  It 
contains  thirty  chapters. 

2.  Ohaloth  (mbn«  =  Tents)  treats  of  the  Levitical  uncleanness 
that  may  arise  in  connexion  with  tents  and  other  kinds  of 
habitation.  A  dead  body  makes  unclean  not  merely  (as  in 
other  cases)  by  contact,  but  by  proximity  ;  as,  e.g..,  in  the  case 
of  a  man  who  finds  himself  in  the  same  tent  with  a  dead  body 
{cf.  Num.  xix.  14).     It  contains  eighteen  chapters. 

3.  NegaHm  (□>!-;:  =  Plagues.,  i.e.  leprosy).  This  tractate  deals 
with  leprosy  in  its  various  degrees  {cf.  Lev.  xiii.-xiv.).  It  con- 
tains fourteen  chapters. 

4.  Parah  (mc  =  Heifer)  gives  minute  regulations  regarding 
the  "red  cow"  (or  heifer)  of  Num.  xix. — the  age,  required 
characteristics,  preparation  for  slaughter,  making  ready  of  the 
ashes,  and  sprinkling  of  the  water  mingled  with  ashes,  etc.  It 
contains  twelve  chapters. 

5.  Toharoih  {T\r\rv::i  =  Purifications).  The  title  is  euphemistic 
for  Defileniefits.  Various  degrees  of  minor  Levitical  uncleanness 
are  dealt  with  that  lasted  till  sunset.     It  contains  ten  chapters. 

6.  Mikwti'oih  (nixv'2  =  Baths  or  Cisterns)  gives  directions  as 
to  the  proper  requirements  of  the  ritual  bath  {cf.  Lev.  xv.  11,  12). 
It  contains  ten  chapters. 

7.  Niddah  (mj  =  U?tclea?mess  [menstruation])  deals  with  the 
Levitical  uncleanness  incurred  by  women  under  certain  recurring 
physical  conditions  {cf  Lev.  xii.;  xv.  19  ff.).  It  contains  ten 
chapters. 

8.  Makshii'in  (p'^^^n  =  Things  made  ritually  fit  for  certaiti 
purposes)  sets  forth  the  conditions  under  which  certain  things, 
by  coming  into  contact  with  liquids,  become  capable  of  defile- 
ment {cf.  Lev.  xi.  34,  yj  f.).     It  contains  six  chapters. 

9.  Zabim  (qui  =  Perso?ts  with  fluxes)  deals  with  the  impurity 
attaching  to  persons  afflicted  with  running  issues  {cf  Lev. 
XV.  2ff.).     It  contains  five  chapters. 

^  The  one  for  a  sin-offering:,  the  other  for  a  burnt-offering. 


io6  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

10.  Tebul  Yoin  (dv  ^yh  =  Immersed  o?t  {^during)  a  day)  has 
for  its  subject  the  condition  of  a  person  who  has  already" taken 
the  ritual  bath,  but  has  to  await  the  coming  of  sunset  before  he 
can  be  regarded  as  completely  free  from  defilement  {cf.  Lev. 
XV.  5  ;  xxii.  6,  7).     It  contains  four  chapters. 

11.  Yadayim  (dh^  =  Hands)  is  an  interesting  and  important 
tractate,  being  concerned  with  the  question  of  ritual  uncleanness 
and  its  removal  by  washing  of  the  hands  {cf.  Matt.  v.  2,  20  ; 
xxiii.  25  ;  Mark  vii.  2-4  ;  Luke  xi.  38-40).  It  contains  four 
chapters. 

12.  Wktzim  (I'jjpw  =  Stalks)  deals  with  the  question  how  far 
the  stalks  may  be  considered  part  of  the  fruit,  and  so  capable 
of  conveying  impurity  when  touched  by  anything  unclean.  It 
contains  three  chapters. 

The  Mishnah  is  written  in  New  Hebrew,  an  idiom 
which,  though  essentially  scholastic  in  character,  and 
cultivated  as  a  learned  language,  was  developed 
organically  from  the  older  language.  It  has  a  large 
admixture  of  Greek  and  Latin  words.^ 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  Mishnah,  as 
we  have  it,  has  grown  out  of  earlier  compilations. 
The  date  of  its  final  redaction  may  be  fixed  approxi- 
mately some  time  before  A.D.  220,  and  its  present 
form  is  due  (with  the  exception  of  some  slight  addi- 
tions) to  the  Patriarch  Judah  I. 

Possibly  the  first  composition  of  such  a  collection  of  material 
was  already  begun  by  the  early  disciples  of  Hillel  and  Shammai. 
R.  Akiba  compiled  an  edition,  which  was  continued  and 
enlarged  by  his  disciple  R.  Meir,  and  this  was  the  principal 
source  of  Judah's  work,  though  he  also  used  other  compilations 
of  a  similar  kind  {e.^.  the  Mishnah  of  Abba  Shaul).  Clear 
indications  of  these  different  strata  are  often  discernible. 

As  Schechter  well  remarks.  Rabbi  Judah's  work 
was    undertaken    and    accomplished,    "not   with    the 

^  There  is  a  good  discussion  of  the  character  of  this  idiom  in 
M.  H.  Segal's  essay,  "  Misnaic  Hebrew  and  its  Relation  to 
Biblical  Hebrew  and  Aramaic,"  published  in  JQR,  July,  1908 
(and  also  separately  reprinted  by  Horace  Hart,  Oxford).  For 
the  grammar,  see  K.  Albrecht,  Neuhebrdische  Graimtiatik  (in 
the  "Porta  Linguarum  Semiticarum"  series),  1913. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  107 

purpose  of  providing  the  nation  with  a  legal  code, 
but  with  the  intention  of  furnishing  them  with  a 
sort  of  thesaurus,  incorporating  such  portions  of  the 
traditional  lore  as  he  considered  most  important. 
Hence  the  ground  for  his  including  in  the  work  the 
opinions  of  the  minority  {e.g.  of  the  school  of 
Shammai),  which  only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases 
were  accepted  as  a  norm  for  practice."  ^ 

Judah's  compilation  was  accepted  as  a  sort  of 
canonical  collection.  But  there  were  other  collec- 
tions of  similar  material,  embodying  the  teaching  of 
the  Tannaim,  parts  of  which  have  survived.  Thus 
there  are  scattered  about  the  Talmud  certain  sections 
known  as  Baraitha  (see  below)  which  are  of  this 
nature,  and  a  sort  of  "apocryphal"  Mishnah  is  extant 
under  the  name  of  Tosephta  (see  below). 

Though  the  contents  of  the  Mishnah  are  pre- 
dominantly legalistic  in  character,  there  are  other 
elements,  which  lend  variety,  such  as  the  description 
of  the  architecture  and  administration  of  the  Temple 
in  Middoth,  and  the  delineation  of  sacrificial  rites  and 
ceremonies  as  they  were  actually  practised.  Many  of 
these  elements  are  of  earlier  literary  origin  than  the 
compilation  of  the  collection,  and  in  some  cases  much 
earlier.^ 

The  style  of  the  Mishnah  is  terse  and  compressed, 
almost  to  baldness.  Brevity,  for  the  sake  of  memo- 
rising, was  aimed  at.  Only  very  occasionally  does  a 
flowing  description  emerge,  such  as  the  charming 
picture  of  a  procession  of  first-fruits  arriving  in  Jeru- 
salem {Bikkurim  iii.  2  f.).  Some  illustrative  citations 
from  the  Mishnah  will  be  given  in  the  sections  that 
follow  to  exemplify  its  relation  to  the  Tosephta  and 
Gemara  respectively. 

1  Hastings's  DB,  extra  vol.  (v.),  p.  6ib. 
^  See  Schechter,  Hastings's  DB,  v.  p.  62. 


io8  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

{b)   THE   TOSEPHTA 

The  name  "  Tosephta "  means  "  Addition "  or 
"  Supplement,"  and  is  given  to  a  collection  of 
Halakoth  parallel  to  the  Mishnah  proper.  The 
material  embodied  in  it  is  largely  of  the  same 
character  and  covers  the  same  ground  as  that  in  the 
latter.  Like  the  Mishnah,  the  Tosephta  is  divided 
into  six  "  orders,"  or  sedarim,  containing  the  corre- 
sponding tractates,  with  the  exception  of  Aboth  in 
Seder  Nezikin,  and  Kinnim,  MiddotJi,  and  Tamid  in 
Seder  Kodashim.  The  Tosephta,  though  it  covers 
the  same  ground  as  the  Mishnah,  deals  with  the 
material  in  a  much  freer  manner.  It  often  illustrates 
the  theme  by  anecdotes,  and  sometimes  gives  the 
Halakoth  in  fuller  form.  Consequently  it  is  a  valuable 
supplement,  especially  for  critical  purposes,  of  the 
official  Mishnah. 

The  exact  relation  of  the  Tosephta  to  the  Mishnah  and  the 
Baraithas  of  the  Talmud  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined. The  relation  with  the  Mishnah  is  undoubtedly  very 
close.  The  phenomena  are  complex.  Parts  of  the  Tosephta 
apparently  come  from  collections  earlier  than  our  Mishnah, 
but  in  the  collected  form  in  which  we  know  it,  it  presupposes  a 
knowledge  of  the  Mishnah  in  its  official  shape.  Other  elements 
may  be  of  an  even  later  date,  presupposing  the  Gemara  of  the 
Talmud,  and  having  been  recast  in  the  New  Hebrew  of  the 
Mishnah.  Schechter  concludes,  on  the  basis  of  these  data, 
that  "  the  date  of  its  final  redaction  falls  in  the  later  age  of  the 
^Amo7'(um,  though  its  composition  may  have  been  initiated  by 
R.  Chiyya  and  R.  Hoshaya,  the  disciples  of  R.  Jedudah  [the 
Patriarch],  to  whom  tradition  attributes  such  a  work,  undertaken 
in  imitation  of  the  Tosephta  of  R.  Nehemiah,  who  is  credited 
with  having  collected  'additions  '  to  the  Mishnah  of  R.  Akiba."^ 

The  following  brief  extracts  froiti  the  tractate 
San/iedrin  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  style  of  Mishnah 
and  Tosephta,  and  their  relation  to  one  another. 
The    paragraphs    are     taken     from     the     Mishnah, 

^  op.  cit.  p.  ^ib. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  109 

SanJiedrin    iv.    5  f.,    and    the    Tosephta,    vii.     8-1 1, 
viii.  I,  2} 

Mishnah 

"  The  Sanhedrin  sat  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle  so 
that  they  might  all  see  each  other ;  and  two  judges' 
clerks  stood  in  front,  one  on  the  right  and  one  on  the 
left,  taking  down  the  evidence  for  the  prosecution  and 
the  defence.  R.  Jehudah  [bar  Ilai]  holds  that  there 
were  three :  one  taking  down  evidence  for  the 
prosecution,  the  second  for  the  defence,  and  the  third 
taking  down  both.  Before  them  sat  three  rows  of 
disciples,  each  knowing  his  own  place.  If  it  became 
necessary  to  appoint  another  judge,  he  was  appointed 
from  the  front  row,  while  one  from  the  second  row 
took  his  place,  and  one  from  the  third  row  that  of 
the  second.  And  for  the  third  row  one  of  the 
assembled  audience  was  chosen.  He  did  not  sit  in 
the  place  just  vacated,  but  in  a  place  for  which  he 
was  suited." 

Tosephta 

vii.  8.  When  the  Prince  S^'  NasV'^  enters,  all  the 
people  stand,  and  do  not  sit  tintil  he  bids  them  do  so. 

When  ''the  Father  of  the  Court"  ["Ad  beth  din''] 
enters,  they  stand  tip  on  either  side  to  make  a  passage 
for  him,  until  he  has  come  to  and-  taken  his  place. 

When  a  member  of  the  court  enters,  one  after  another 
stands  up  to  make  room  for  him  until  he  has  come  to 
and  taken  his  place.  When  the  services  of  the  children 
and  disciples  of  the  members  of  the  court  are  required, 
they  pass  over  the  heads  of  the  assembled  people.  And 
although  they  say  that  it  is  not  praiseworthy  in  a 
disciple  of  the  luise  to  come  in  late,  he  may  yet  go  out 
if  necessity  demand  it,  and  come  in  again  and  take  his 
place. 

^  From  the  translation  by  H.  Danby  (in  the  series  01 
"  Translations  of  Early  Documents  "),  pp.  75-77- 


no  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

9.  The  children  and  disciples  of  the  members  of  the 
court,  if  they  can  understand  the  proceedings,  turn  their 
faces  to  their  fathers ;  if  not,  they  turn  their  faces 
towards  the  assembled  people.  R.  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
R.  Zadok,  says'.  ^'  Also  at  a  feast  children  are  placed 
by  the  side  of  their  fat Jiers!' 

10.  When  a  member  of  the  court  comes  in,  his  opinion 
is  not  asked  tintil  he  has  had  time  to  make  up  his  mind. 
Similarly  a  disciple  should  not  be  asked  his  opinion  as 
soon  as  he  comes  in.  If  on  his  entering  he  finds  the 
court  occupied  in  some  legal  discussion,  he  may  not 
break  in  upon  their  talk  until  he  has  sat  down  and 
discovered  what  is  the  subject  with  which  they  are 
occupied.  If  he  should  do  so  it  is  of  such  a  one  that  it 
is  said: "  There  are  seven  marks  of  the  clod,  and  seven 
of  the  wise  man,"  etc} 

1 1.  Seve7t  rules  of  interpretation  did  the  elder  Hillel 

expound  before  the  elders  of  Bethyra 

2 

viii.  I.  Every  Sanhedrin  in  which  are  two  members 
competent  to  speak,  and  all  to  comprehend,  is  worthy  of 
being  a  Sanhedrin.  If  there  are  three,  it  is  an  average 
assembly ;  if  four,  a  wise  one.  The  Sanhedrin  was 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  so  that  they  might 
all  see  each  other.  The  Prince  ["  Nasi "]  sat  in  the 
middle,  with  the  elders  on  his  right  and  left. 
R.  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Zadok,  said:  "  When  Rabban 
Gafnaliel  [//.]  sat  in  fabneh  {famnia),  my  father  and 
another  sat  on  his  right,  and  the  other  elders  o?t  his  left." 
And  why  does  one  sit  in  accordance  with  age  07i  the 
right  ?     Because  of  the  reverence  due  to  age. 

2.   There  were  three  rows  of  disciples  sitting  in  front 

1  This  is  cited  from  Pirke  Aboth,  v.  10,  and  the  passage 
continues  :  "  The  wise  man  speaks  not  before  one  who  is 
greater  than  himself  in  wisdom,  and  does  not  interrupt  the 
words  of  his  companion." 

^  The  omitted  lines  give  the  technical  designations  of  the 
seven  exegetical  rules  (afterwards  expanded  to  thirteen).  See 
Singer,  p.  13. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  iii 

of  them :  the  most  important  firsts  the  second  in 
importance  next,  and  the  third  in  the  last  row.  After 
this  there  ivas  no  fixed  order,  except  that  each  should  be 
placed  four  cubits  away  f^om  his  fellozv. 

The  officers  of  the  court,  the  defendant,  the  witnesses 
and  their  refuters,  and  the  refuters  of  their  refuters, 
used  to  stand  within  the  front  row  fiear  the  people. 
And  it  was  ahvays  easy  to  know  which  was  the 
defendant,  since  he  was  always  stationed  next  to  the 
chief  witness. 

It  will  be  noticed,  when  the  two  parallel  passages 
given  above  are  compared,  that  the  matter  contained 
in  the  Tosephta  is  at  once  fuller,  and  also  introduces 
elements  that  are  not  represented  in  the  Mishnah  text 
at  all. 

{c)   THE   BARAITHAS 

The  term  "  Baraitha  "  (t^ri''*1l)  ^^  ^"  Aramaic  one 
meaning  "  outside,"  "  external  "  {sc.  Mishnah  ^),  and 
designates  a  Tannaitic  tradition  not  incorporated  in 
the  official  Mishnah,  or  a  collection  of  such.  It  has 
been  suggested  ^  that  this  Aramaic  designation  may 
be  an  adaptation  of  the  New  Hebrew  term  sepharim 
ha-chitzonim,  i.e.  "  the  external  books,"  which  denotes 
apocryphal  writings,  and  is  employed  by  Akiba 
{Sanh.  X.  i).  The  relation  between  the  official 
Mishnah  and  the  Baraithas  would  thus  be  similar  to 
that  of  the  Apocryphal  Books  to  the  canonical  writings 
of  Scripture.^ 

In  the  Babylonian  Talmud  "Baraitha"  is  applied 
to  very  varied  kinds  of  literature — in  fact,  to  any 
Tannaitic    traditions   not   contained    in   the    official 

1  In  Aramaic  sn':nD. 

2  InJE  ii.  5i3<^  {s.v.  Baraitd). 

2  Another  explanation  connects  the  term  with  the  Tannaitic 
tradition  taught  in  the  private  schools  (designated  bara, 
"  outside  "). 


112  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Mishnah,  such  as  the  collections  known  as  Tosephta, 
and  even  the  Tannaitic  Midrashini  Sifra,  Sifre,  and 
Mekilta. 

A  large  amount  of  the  material,  however,  which  is 
properly  termed  "  Baraitha "  exists  in  the  form  of 
isolated  sections,  scattered  about  the  Talmuds,i 
where  they  are  distinguishable  from  the  rest  of  the 
Gemara  by  the  fact  that  they  are  cited  in  Hebrew, 
while  the  language  of  the  Gemara  is  Aramaic.  They 
are  also  introduced  by  a  formula  which  runs :  "  Our 
Rabbis  have  taught "  (tenS  rabbdnan),  or  "  There  is  a 
tradition  "  {tanya),  or  where  an  authority  is  cited  by 
name  :  "  Rabbi  So-and-so  taught  "  [teni  R.). 

The  material  contained  in  the  Baraitha  sections 
embraces  both  Halakah  and  Haggadah,  the  latter 
element  being  often  very  considerable,  while  in  the 
official  Mishnah  it  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The 
Baraitha  material  also  may  be  broadly  distinguished 
into  two  main  divisions,  viz.  the  pre-Mishnaic  and 
post-Mishnaic,  which  fundamentally  differ  from  each 
other.  The  former,  for  instance,  has  often  preserved 
the  older  Halakah  which  was  rejected  by  the  official 
Mishnah.^  In  many  cases  also  the  reasons  are  given 
fully  for  a  Halakah  which  is  merely  enunciated  by 
the  official  Mishnah,  and  assumed  as  axiomatic 
without  further  discussion. 

The  Haggadic  Baraithas  are  probably  survivals  of 
earlier  collections  of  such  material  which  have 
perished.  That  such  collections,  consisting  of  homi- 
letic  expansions  with  an  admixture  of  legendary 
elements,  and  based  on  a  continuous  Biblical  text, 
were  early  in  existence  is  suggested  by  such  a  book 
as  Jubilees  or  the  so-called  Biblical  Antiquities  of 
Pseudo-Philo.     From  such  collections    many   of  the 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  these  sections  are  often  cited /r^;« 
collections^  such  as  those  referred  to  above. 

2  This  appHes  particularly  to  the  rejected  Halakoth  of  the 
school  of  Shammai. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  113 

Haggadic  Baraithas  cited  in  the  Talmud  were  prob- 
ably drawn. 

The  later  (post-Mishnaic)  Baraithas  differ  alto- 
gether from  the  earlier.  They  presuppose  the  official 
Mishnah  and  supplement  it,  sometimes  adapting  its 
rules  to  the  conditions  *of  a  somewhat  later  time. 
Occasionally  views  differing  from  those  accepted  in 
the  official  Mishnah,  but  unrecorded  there,  are  given, 
with  the  names  of  the  authorities.  But  even  in  these 
cases  the  motive  for  presenting  such  opinions  seems 
to  have  been  a  desire  to  supplement  the  official  text, 
and  there  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  the  dis- 
ciples of  Judah  I.  may  have  even  been  prompted  to 
undertake  this  work  by  the  Patriarch  himself  Their 
work  was  probably  embodied  in  collections  of  which 
only  excerpts  have  survived,  which  have  been  pre- 
served in  the  Talmuds  and  Midrashim,  and  the 
Tosephta. 

In  the  period  of  the  Amoraim  there  was  some 
conflict  of  opinion  regarding  the  authority  of  the 
Baraitha  collections  when  these,  in  any  of  their 
dicta,  contradicted  the  rules  accepted  in  the  official 
Mishnah.  The  rule  ultimately  laid  down  was  that 
such  opinions  could  lay  claim  to  no  binding  authority. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  large  number  of  cases 
where  the  Baraithas  supplemented  the  official  Mishnah 
without  contradicting  it  they  were  cited  and  highly 
valued.  The  Baraitha  collections  were  diligently 
studied  by  some  of  the  Talmudic  scholars — in  Baby- 
lonia especially  by  Sheshet  and  Joseph  b.  Chiyyah, 
who  belonged  to  the  third  generation  of  the 
Amoraim,  and  who  prided  themselves  upon  their 
knowledge  of  such  collections.  In  general,  however, 
the  Palestinian  scholars  possessed  a  wider  and  more 
exact  knowledge  of  these  collections. 


114  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

(iii)   The  Talniuds 

[Special  Literature  :  A  Latin  translation  of  a  large  part 
of  the  Palestinian  Talmud  is  given  in  Ugolini's  Thesaurus^ 
vols,  xvii.,  XX.,  XXV.,  and  xxx.  A  complete  translation  into  French 
has  been  made  by  Moses  Schwab  (Paris,  1871  and  following 
years)  ;  and  an  English  translation  of  Schwab's  first  volume 
{Bemkoth)  appeared  in  1885.  The  Haggadic  portions  are 
given  in  Wiinsche,  Der  jerusaleviische  Talmud  in  seinen 
haj^gadischefi  Bestcmdtheile?t  (Zurich,   1880). 

An  edition  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (Hebrew  text  and 
German  translation),  by  W,  L.  Goldschmidt,  which  is  not 
yet  completed,  has  been  appearing  for  many  years  past.  The 
Haggadic  passages  have  been  translated  by  Wiinsche,  Der 
babylotiische  Talmud  in  seinen  haggadisc/ien  Beslandtheilen 
(2  vols.,  1886,  1888). 

Translations  of  single  tractates  have  appeared  in  Latin, 
German,  French,  and  English.  In  English,  the  treatise 
Chagigah^  translated,  with  introduction,  notes,  glossary,  and 
indices,  by  the  Rev.  A.  W.  Streane  (Cambridge,  1891). 

For  other  literature,  see  the  list  printed  on  pp.  81  f.  above. 

A  valuable  conspectus  of  Talmudic  archaeology  is  contained 
in  Dr.  S.  Krauss's  Talmudische  Archdologie  (3  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1910-12). 

An  invaluable  aid  to  the  study  of  the  Talmuds  is  embodied  in 
various  works  by  Bacher,  especially  his  Agada  der  Tan?iailen^ 
vol.  i.  {vo?z  Hillel  bis  Akiba),  2nd  ed.  1903  ;  vol.  ii.  {voji  Akiba^s 
Tod  bis  ziim  Abschlusz  der  Mischna)^  1890  ;  and  his  Die 
Agada  der  Paldstitienischen  Amo?'der  (3  vols.,  1892,  1896, 
1899)  ;  also  Die  Agada  der  Babylonischen  Amor  der  (1878). 

For  Talmudic  terminology,  the  following  works  may  be  men- 
tioned :  W.  Bacher,  Die  exegetische  Terminologie  der  jiidischeji 
Traditio7islileratiir^  Part  i..  Die  Bibelexegetische  Terminologie  der 
Tan7iaiten  (Leipzig,  1899)  ;  Part  ii..  Die  Bibel-  und  Traditiojis- 
exegetiscJie  Terminologie  der  Amorder  (Leipzig,  1905).  In  this 
connexion  also  Mielziner's  Introduction  to  the  Talmud  (referred 
to  above,  p.  81)  is  useful. 

The  following  grammatical  and  lexicographical  works  are 
important:  G.  Dalman's  Grammatik des JiidiscJi-Paldstinischen 
Aramdisch  (for  the  dialect  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud)  ;  C. 
Levias,  A  Grammar  of  the  Aramaic  Idioin  contained  i?t  the 
Babylonian  Talmud  (Cincinnati,  1900),  and  Max  L.  Margolis, 
A  Manual  of  the  Aramaic  Language  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
(Munich,  1910)  ;  Marcus  Jastrow,  A  Dictionary  of  the 
Targumim,  the  Talmud  Babli  and  Yerushahni,  a?td  the 
Midrashic  Literature  (London  :  Luzac,  2  vols.,  1903). 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  115 

Though  not  strictly  falHng  within  our  purview  here,  it  may  be 
useful  to  mention  the  following  works  on  Rabbinic  theology  : 
Some  Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology^  by  S.  Schechter  (London, 
1909)  ;  and  Jewish  Theology  Systematically  and  Historically 
Co?tsidered,  by  Dr.  K.  Kohler  (New  York.  191 8).] 


With  the  completion  of  the  work  of  the  Tannaim, 
which  is  embodied  in  its  most  authoritative  form  in 
the  official  Mishnah,  though  it  also  embraces,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  earlier  Midrashiin  {Mekiita,  Sifre^ 
Sifra\  as  well  as  many  Baraithas  and  the  Tosephta, 
the  work  of  the  Jewish  schools  did  not  cease.  On 
the  contrary,  the  text  of  the  official  Mishnah  became 
the  basis  for  further  discussion  and  amplification  in 
the  schools  both  of  Palestine  and  of  Babylonia ;  and 
the  outcome  of  all  this  activity  is  embodied  in  the 
two  Talmuds.  The  authorities  who  were  responsible 
for  this  work  are  technically  designated  "  Amoraim  " 
(Heb.   D''^"^t2^^)'    ^•^'    "speakers"    or    "interpreters," 

•    T     — : 

and  the  term  is  applied  to  the  scholars  who  flourished 
between  A.D.  220  and  about  500. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  during  this  period  the 
principal  centres  of  Rabbinical  learning  Were  not  confined  to 
Palestine  (Tiberias,  Sepphoris,  Ciesarea),  but  existed  also  in 
Babylonia  (Nehardea,  Sura,  and  later  Pumbeditha).  In  fact, 
the  Babylonian  Academies  gradually  took  the  place  of  the 
earlier  schools  in  Palestine.  "  Palestine  did  not  continue  to 
offer  a  friendly  welcome.  Under  the  more  tolerant  rulers  of 
Babylonia,  or  Persia,  Jewish  learning  found  a  refuge  from  the 
harshness  experienced  under  those  of  the  Holy  Land.  The 
Babylonian  Jewish  schools  in  Nehardea,  Sura,  and  Pum- 
beditha rapidly  surpassed  the  Palestinian  in  reputation,  and  in 
the  year  350,  owing  to  natural  decay,  the  Palestinian  schools 
closed."  1 

It  may  be  added  that  a  difference  of  title  distinguishes  the 
Amoraim  of  Palestine  from  those  of  Babylonia.  The  former, 
who  had  been  ordained  by  the  Patriarch  {Nasi\  bore  the  title  of 

^  Abrahams,  Short  Hist,  of  Jewish  Literature,  p.  20. 

I    2 


ii6  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

"  Rabbi,"  while  those  who  had  received  ordination  in  Babylonia 
were  as  a  rule  called  "  Rab."  ^ 

The  "Amoraim,"  as  their  name  implies,  were 
originally  "  speakers  "  who  rehearsed  to  the  audience 
of  the  disciples  the  original  discourse  of  the  earlier 
Tanna  or  "  Rabbi."  They  were  not  primarily  inde- 
pendent teachers  or  authorities,  though  they  did,  in- 
deed, develop  a  certain  amount  of  independence  and 
authority  in  dealing  with  the  old  material,  which 
they  made  the  basis  for  further  development.  Their 
function  was  "  to  interpret  the  often  very  brief  and 
concise  expression  of  the  Mishnah,  to  investigate  its 
reasons  and  sources,  to  reconcile  seeming  contra- 
dictions, to  compare  its  canons  with  those  of  the 
Baraithoth,  and  to  apply  its  decisions  and  established 
principles  to  new  cases  not  yet  provided  for."  ^  Their 
authorities  were  the  earlier  Tannaim  and  the  litera- 
ture embodying  the  Tannaite  traditions,  especially 
the  Mishnah  and  Baraithas. 

These  teachers  were  active  during  the  three  cen- 
turies A.D.  200  to  500,  and  the  results  of  their  work 
are  embodied  in  the  two  Talmuds.  Like  the  earlier 
Tannaim,  they  were  men  of  very  varied  character 
and  antecedents.  Some  were  rich  and  well-to-do, 
others  were  extremely  poor.  Very  few  were  profes- 
sional men  of  letters,  and  many  of  them  combined 
some  secular  calling  or  trade  with  the  pursuit  of 
learning,  being  physicians,  artisans,  or  even  field- 
labourers,  as  well  as  teachers  of  the  Law.  In  this 
way  they  combined  scholarship — -for  their  scholarship 
within  their  own  domain  was  remarkable — with 
contact  witli  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  The  variety 
of  interest  and  outlook  thus  secured  is  reflected  in 
the  Talmudic  literature.     The  Amoraim   themselves 

1  The  title  "Rabban"  is  superior  to  both  "Rabbi"  and 
"  Rab,"  being  confined  to  the  Patriarchs  and  heads  of  the 
Sanhedrin,  e.g.  "  Rabban  Gamaliel." 

^  Mielziner,  op.  cit.  p.  40. 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  117 

were  also  men  of  very  varied  character  and  achieve- 
ment. The  most  important  of  these  teachers,  of 
whom  several  hundreds  are  mentioned  in  the 
Talmud,  are  the  following,  classified  into  five  (or 
sometimes  six)  generations  : 

(1)  First  Generation  (220-280):  {a)  Palestine. 
Perhaps  the  oldest  of  the  Amoraim  proper  is  Chanina 
b.  Chama  (a.d.  180-260),  who  migrated  at  a  mature 
age  from  Babylonia  to  Palestine,  and  taught  in  Sep- 
phoris.  He  was  a  friend  and  pupil  of  the  Patriarch 
Judah  L,  who  greatly  esteemed  him.  He  was  famous 
as  a  Haggadist,  and  a  master  of  pungent  speech. 
To  him  is  ascribed  the  aphorism  :  "  Everything  is  in 
the  power  of  Heaven  except  the  fear  of  Heaven." 

Another  famous  teacher  of  this  generation  who 
lectured  at  Sepphoris,  and  afterwards  at  Caesarea, 
was  R.  Hoshaiah,  one  of  the  reputed  compilers  of  the 
Tosephta.  He  also  was  a  famous  Haggadist,  and,  it 
is  interesting  to  note,  was  often  engaged  in  con- 
troversy with  Christians  in  Palestine,  and  may  even 
have  met,  in  such  circumstances,  the  famous  Church 
Father  Origen,  who  presided  over  a  famous  theo- 
logical school  at  Caesarea  for  some  years  following 
A.D.  231. 

The  principal  centre  of  learning  in  Palestine  was 
at  Tiberias,  where  a  great  school  was  established  by 
R.  Jochanan  b.  Nappacha  (a.d.  199-279),  a  pupil  of 
Chanina.  He  is  often  referred  to  in  the  Talmud 
(usually  as  "  R.  Jochanan "  simply),  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  leading  Amora  of  Palestine. 
Jochanan  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  attrac- 
tiveness, with  a  sense  of  artistic  beauty — he  was  a 
lover  of  Greek.  He  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as 
having  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Palestinian 
Talmud. 

A  contemporary  of  R,  Jochanan  was  his  brother- 
in-law  Simon  b.  Lakish  (a.D.  200-275),  usually  styled 
"  Resh  Lakish."     The  two   men   were   closely   asso- 


ii8  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

ciated  during  life  and  worked  together,  though 
Simon  exercised  a  completely  independent  judge- 
ment in  his  interpretation  of  the  Halakah.  It  is 
said  of  him  by  a  contemporary  that  "  when  he  dis- 
cussed Halakic  questions  it  was  as  if  he  were 
uprooting  mountains  and  rubbing  them  together" 
{Sank.  24a).  He  was  also  a  great  Haggadist.  Some 
of  his  sayings  are  strikingly  bold  and  pungent :  "  No 
man  commits  a  sin  unless  struck  by  momentary 
insanity  "  ;  "  Do  not  live  in  the  neighbourhood  of  an 
ignorant  man  who  is  pious."  Simon  was  a  man  of 
masterful  personality,  intensely  courageous,  and  a 
genuine  lover  of  truth. 

Another  famous  contemporary  was  Joshua  ben 
Levi  (first  half  of  the  third  century  A.D.),  who  figures 
prominently  in  many  legends.  He  presided  over  the 
school  of  Lydda,  in  southern  Palestine.  A  man  of 
wealth  and  public  spirit,  Joshua  occupied  a  pro- 
minent position  in  the  affairs  of  his  time.  His 
authority  as  a  teacher  was  widely  recognised,  and 
he  was  eminent  as  both  a  Halakist  and  a  Haggadist. 
He  strongly  insisted  upon  the  importance  of  study, 
combined  with  piety.  In  character  he  was  tender 
and  sympathetic  towards  the  poor  and  unfortunate, 
and  a  saying  attributed  to  him  declares  that  the 
Messiah  when  He  comes  will  be  found  among  the 
beggars  and  cripples  of  Rome. 

Another  eminent  Haggadist  of  this  period  was 
R.  Simlai,  who  belonged  to  both  Palestine  and 
Babylonia.  He  was  probably  born  in  the  latter 
country  (at  Nehardea),  but  migrated  to  Palestine, 
settling  in  Lydda,  and  later  going  to  Galilee.  In 
Palestine  he  often  engaged  in  friendly  controversy 
with  Jewish  Christians. 

With  this  generation  ought  strictly  to  be  reckoned 
R.  Eleazar  ben  Pedath  (usually  referred  to  as  "  R. 
Eleazar"  simply),  who  died  probably  about  A.D.  279. 
Born  in  Babylonia,  where  he  studied  under  Rab  and 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  119 

Samuel,  he  migrated  to  Palestine,  and  became  a 
colleague  of  R.  Jochanan  at  Tiberias,  succeeding  the 
latter  as  head  of  the  college.  He  was  a  fine  example 
of  a  great  scholar  who  accepted  poverty  proudly. 

{b)  Babylonia.  The  chief  Babylonian  Amora  is 
Abba  Arika  (a.d.  175-247),  commonly  styled 
"  Rab,"  i.e.  "  the  Teacher  "/^r  excellence  {cf.  "  Rabbi  " 
applied  to  Judah  I.).  In  youth  he  accompanied  his 
uncle  Chiyya  to  Palestine,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the 
Patriarch  Judah  I.  After  the  death  of  the  latter  he 
returned  to  Babylonia  and  founded  at  Sura  in 
A.D.  219  the  famous  Academy,  which  was  destined  to 
last  eight  centuries.  This  was  attended  by,  it  is  said, 
some  1,200  pupils,  and  more  than  100  of  his  disciples 
are  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Talmud. 

A  contemporary  and  fellow-disciple  with  Rab  of 
the  Patriarch  Judah  I.  was  Mar  Samuel  (180-254), 
under  whom  the  school  at  Nehardea  attained  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity.  It  was  Samuel  who  laid  down 
the  principle,  so  important  for  Jewish  communities 
living  under  non-Jewish  governments,  that  "  the  law 
of  the  land  is  law." 

Rab  determined  the  form  and  method  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud.  Taking  the  Mishnah  of  Judah  I. 
as  the  basis,  and  adding  to  this  the  other  Tannaitic 
traditions,  he  proceeded  to  derive  from  these  sources 
the  theoretic  explanations  and  applications  of  the 
religious  Law.  "  The  legal  and  ritual  opinions 
recorded  in  Rab's  name  and  his  disputes  with 
Samuel  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  Babylonian 
Talmud."! 

To  his  manifold  activities  in  the  cause  of  learning 
Rab  also  added  a  warm  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
mass  of  the  people.  For  their  benefit  he  organised 
popular  lectures  to  promote  the  study  of  Rabbinical 
learning  generally.  He  was  also  deeply  interested  in 
the  synagogue  Liturgy,  and  was  responsible  for  the 
1  JE  ii.  30. 


120  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDI^.VAL  JUDAISM 

present  form  of  one  of  its  finest  prayers.^  One  of  the 
striking  sayings  attributed  to  Rab  runs  :  "  Man  will 
hereafter  be  called  to  account  for  depriving  himself 
of  the  good  things  which  the  world  lawfully  offers." 

(ii)  Second  Generation  (a.d.  280-320): 
{a)  Palestine.  Abbahu,  a  native  of  Palestine,  and 
head  of  the  Academy  at  Caesarea,  was  the  most 
prominent  Palestinian  Amora  of  this  period.  He 
had  been  a  pupil  of  R.  Jochanan  at  Tiberias,  and 
was  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with  the  latter. 
He  was  wealthy  and  popular,  not  only  with  his  own 
people,  but  also  with  the  high  Roman  officials  at 
Caesarea.  He  frequently  engaged  in  controversy 
with  the  Christians  of  his  day.  His  interests  were 
wide  (he  was  a  good  Greek  scholar),  and  he  was 
eminent  as  both  a  Halakist  and  a  Haggadist. 
Popular,  cultivated,  and  influential,  he  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  figures  among  the  Rabbis.  Among 
his  contemporaries  were  Chiyya  bar  Abba,  Ammi, 
and  Assi  (Ammi  ultimately  became  head  of  the 
Academy  at  Tiberias). 

Another  famous  name  that  belongs  to  this 
generation  is  that  of  Samuel  ben  Nachman 
(Nachmani),-  pre-eminent  as  a  Haggadist  (born  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third,  and  died  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth,  century).  He  visited  the  Emperor  Diocletian 
at  Paneas.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  rule  that  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  instruction  should  be  suspended. 

{b)  Babylonia.  Rab  Huna  (A.D.  212-297)  succeeded 
Rab  as  head  of  the  school  at  Sura,  and  completed 
Rab's  work  in  making  this  famous  Academy  the 
centre  of  Jewish  intellectual  life.  A  man  of  great 
learning  and  wealth  (though  in  early  life  he  had  been 
very  poor),  he  was  also  distinguished  for  piety  and 
open-handed  hospitality.  He  was  equally  eminent 
as  a  Halakist  and  a  Haggadist. 

^  The  'Alenu  Prayer  (see  Singer,  pp.  76-77,  beginning  "It 
is  our  duty  .  .  .  "). 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  121 

Another  disciple,  equally  eminent,  of  Rab  was 
Judah  b.  Ezekiel  (A.D.  220-299).  He  often  stayed 
in  the  house  of  Rab,  whose  son  Chiyya  was  his  pupil. 
Judah  was  a  scholar  of  vast  learning  and  possessed 
of  great  critical  powers.  He  founded  the  Academy 
of  Pumbeditha,  and  there  introduced  a  new  method 
of  instruction,  based  upon  critical  principles.  He 
may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Talmudic 
dialectics. 

Two  other  Rabbis  must  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nexion, Chisda  (died  A.D.  309  at  an  advanced  age) 
and  Shesheth.  Chisda,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of 
Rab  and  Huna,  presided  over  the  school  at  Sura  for 
ten  years  (A.D.  299-309).  He  was  a  great  casuist. 
Shesheth  was  a  friend  of  Chisda,  and  ultimately 
founded  a  school  at  Shilhe.  He  possessed  an  extra- 
ordinarily retentive  memory,  which  compensated  for 
his  blindness.  It  is  said  that  he  was  able  to  recite  the 
entire  body  of  Tannaitic  tradition,  together  with  the 
Amoraic  interpretations  (T.B.  SJiebuoth  \\b\  He 
hired  a  scholar  to  read  the  Mishnah  and  Baraitha  to 
him  {Sank.  86^).     He  was  a  great  casuist.^ 

(iii)  Third  Generation  (a.d.  320-370) : 
{a)  Palestine.  During  this  period  the  Palestinian 
schools  gradually  decayed,  and  finally  ceased  to 
exist,  owing  to  the  persecuting  policy  of  the  Christian 
Emperors  Constantine  and  Constantius.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  Palestinian  Amora  of  the  period 
was  R.  Jeremiah  b.  Abba  (always  referred  to  simply 
as  "  R.  Jeremiah  "),  a  Babylonian,  who  migrated  to 
Caesarea,  where  he  made  rapid  progress  in  his  studies. 
Among  his  teachers  were  Abbahu  and  his  own 
countryman  Ze'ira.  The  latter,  a  Babylonian,  who 
had  been  a  pupil  of  Chisda  and  Judah  b.  Ezekiel  at 

^  Another  Babylonian  Amora  of  some  importance  belonging 
to  this  period  is  R.  Nachman  bar  Jacob  (died  A.D.  320).  He 
had  been  a  pupil  of  Mar  Samuel,  and  became  head  of  the 
school  at  Nehardea.     He  is  often  referred  to  as  "  R.  Nachman." 


122  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Pumbeditha,  out  of  his  love  for  the  Holy  Land 
emigrated  to  Palestine,  where  he  became  the  intimate 
friend  of  Assi  and  Chiyya  bar  Abba.  Ze'ira  was 
highly  regarded  by  Abbahu,  the  head  of  the  school 
at  Csesarea,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the  latter.  On 
account  of  his  piety  he  was  known  as  **  the  pious 
Babylonian."  Among  his  Haggadic  sayings  the 
following  is  notable  :  "  He  who  has  never  sinned  is 
worthy  of  reward  only  if  he  has  withstood  temptation 
todoso"(T.J.  iT/^^.  6i^). 

Jeremiah,  as  has  been  said,  was  Ze'ira's  pupil,  and 
astonished  his  contemporaries  by  his  diligence  in 
study.  He  ultimately  became  recognised  as  the 
leading  scholar  in  Tiberias,  and  his  fame  as  a  scholar 
was  equally  great  in  both  Babylonia  and  Palestine. 

A  famous  pupil  of  Jeremiah  was  R.  Jonah,  who 
became  a  leading  Amora  in  Palestine  in  the  fourth 
century.  With  his  schoolmate  and  lifelong  colleague, 
R.  Jose  II.,  he  had  studied  under  Ze'ira.  About 
A.D.  350  these  scholars  presided  over  the  school  at 
Tiberias.  An  elder  colleague,  and,  like  them,  an 
eminent  member  of  the  Tiberias  circle,  was  R.  Haggai, 
who  had  likewise  been  a  pupil  of  Ze'ira.  It  is 
reported  that  "  Haggai  opened  the  discourse  and 
Jonah  and  Jose  closed  it"  (T.J.  Rosh  ha-shanah  ii. 
58^).  Jonah  left  a  worthy  son  and  successor  in 
Mani  II.  (Mani  is  an  abbreviation  of  Menachem), 
who  was  a  pupil  of  Jose  II.  He  lived  and  taught  for 
the  most  part  in  Sepphoris. 

One  other  famous  Palestinian  Amora  calls  for 
mention  here,  Tanchuma  b.  Abba,  who,  according  to 
Bacher,  resided  in  Nave,  a  town  in  Peraea.  He  was 
pre-eminent  as  a  Haggadist,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
completing  the  line  of  Palestinian  Haggadic  scholars. 
It  was  he  who  began  the  process  of  fixing  the 
Midrash  in  literary  form,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  Midrash  literature.  His  collection  of 
Midraskim,  which  is  no  longer  extant  in  original  form, 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  123 

probably  formed  the  basis  of  the  Pesikta  Midrashim 
\Pesikta  de  Rab  Kahana  and  Pesikta  RabbatJit),  as 
well  as  of  the  Tanchuma  ("  Yelammedenu  ")  Midrash. 
He  often  engaged  in  controversy  with  Christian 
scholars. 

{b)  Babylonia.  Rabbah  b.  Nachmani  (270-330) 
forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  fourth  and  the 
previous  generation  of  the  Babylonian  teachers.  '  He 
was  a  pupil  both  of  R.  Huna  at  Sura  and  of  Jndah 
b.  Ezekiel  at  Pumbeditha.  Though  he  belonged  by 
birth  to  a  distinguished  priestly  family  of  Judaea, 
he  seems  never  to  have  left  Babylonia.  He  is  usually 
styled  "Rabbah"  simply.  On  the  death  of  Judah, 
Rabbah  was  elected  head  of  the  Academy  at 
Pumbeditha,  and  held  this  office  till  his  death.  A 
man  of  keen  critical  faculty,  he  \yas  a  master  of 
dialectic,  and  on  this  account  was  styled  "the 
uprooter  of  mountains."  He  and  his  family  seem  to 
have  lived  in  great  poverty,  in  spite  of  his  fame  as  a 
teacher.  A  contemporary  and  pupil  of  Rabbah  was 
Raba  b.  Joseph  b.  Chama  (a.d.  280-352).  He 
was  born  and  died  in  Machuza,  where  his  father  was 
a  wealthy  and  distinguished  scholar.  His  companion 
in  study  was  Abaye  (A.D.  280-338),  a  man  of  about 
his  own  age.  The  two  scholars  developed  the 
dialectic  method  of  their  master  Rabbah.  When, 
after  the  death  of  R.  Joseph,  Abaye  was  chosen  head 
of  the  Academy  at  Pumbeditha,  Raba  founded  a 
school  of  his  own  at  Machuza,  to  which  centre,  when 
Abaye  died  (in  338),  the  Academy  at  Pumbeditha 
was  transferred  ;  and  during  the  lifetime  of  Raba, 
Machuza  remained  the  only  seat  of  Jewish  learning  in 
Babylonia.  Raba  ranks  as  a  high  authority  in  the 
chain  of  Halakic  tradition  ;  but  he  was  equally  pre- 
eminent as  a  Haggadist.  His  Haggadic  discourses 
seem  to  have  been  delivered,  to  a  large  extent,  in 
public,  perhaps  in  connexion  with  the  Sabbath 
afternoon    service.     His   controversies    (on     Halakic 


124  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

subjects)  with  Abaye  contributed  much  to  the 
development  of  the  dialectic  method  of  the  Talmud. 

Abaye  was  one  of  the  first  to  draw  a  clear  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  simple  meaning  of  Scripture 
(the  Peshaf)  and  the  Midrashic  exegesis  of  it.  It  is 
also  interesting  to  note  that  he  defended  the  Apocry- 
phal book  Ecclesiasticus  against  the  attacks  of  his 
teacher,  Rab  Joseph.  The  latter,  belonging  to  the 
older  generation  (died  A.D.  323),  was  styled  by  his 
contemporaries  "  Sinai,"  on  account  of  his  profound 
knowledge  of  the  traditional  Law.  For  two  years  and 
a  half  after  the  death  of  Rabbah  he  was  head  of  the 
Academy  at  Pumbeditha. 

A  pupil  of  Raba  and  Abaye  must  be  mentioned 
here.  Papa  (A.D.  300-375),  who,  after  the  death  of  his 
teachers,  founded  a  school  at  Neres,  a  city  near  Sura. 
He  engaged  in  the  trade  of  brewing,  in  which  he 
amassed  considerable  wealth,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  very  avaricious.  He  was  not  a  great  scholar, 
and  lacked  independence  of  judgement.  He,  how- 
ever, possessed  considerable  knowledge  of  the  world, 
which  he  acquired  by  extensive  travel,  and  was  con- 
sidered to  be  an  authority  on  popular  proverbs. 

(iv)  Fourth  Generation  (a.d.  375-427) :  Entirely 
Babylonian.  In  the  year  that  Raba,  the  head  of  the 
school  at  Machuza,  died,  one  who  was  destined  to 
play  an  all-important  part  in  the  perpetuation  of  the 
labours  of  the  Babylonian  Amoraim  was  born.  This 
was  Ashi  (a.d.  352-427),  who,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
reopened  the  Academy  at  Sura  as  its  head,  and 
presided  over  it  for  fifty-two  years.  It  had  been 
closed  since  Chisda's  death  (in  309),  and  under  Ashi 
regained  all  its  old  prestige.  Ashi's  commanding 
position  among  his  contemporaries  is  indicated  by 
a  saying  of  the  time  that  since  the  days  of  the 
Patriarch  Judah  I.  (the  compiler  of  the  Mishnah) 
"  learning  and  social  distinction  were  never  so  united 
in  one  person  as  in  Ashi"  (T.B.  Sank.  36^:).     He  was 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  125 

the  first  really  important  teacher  to  arise  in  the 
Babylonian  colleges  since  Raba's  death. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  he  was  persona  grata  with 
the  Persian  government,  and  also  regarded  with 
reverence  by  the  authorities  of  the  other  Babylonian 
colleges  (Nehardea  and  Pumbeditha),  he  was  able  to 
carry  on  his  life-work  undisturbed.  This  was  the 
initiation  of  the  task  of  compiling,  sifting,  and 
arranging  the  material  which  was  afterwards  em- 
bodied in  the  Gemara  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 
The  work  begun  by  Ashi  was  only  completed  under 
Rabina,  the  last  of  the  Amoraim  (died  A.D.  499). 
It  required  immense  powers  of  memory,  great 
mental  grasp,  and  mastery  over  the  vast  and  varied 
material,  which  Ashi  possessed  in  abundant  measure. 
He  not  only  made  Sura  a  centre  of  intellectual  life, 
but  materially  enhanced  its  prosperity  by  rebuilding 
at  great  expense  Rab's  old  Academy  and  the  syna- 
gogue attached  to  it. 

Ashi's  teacher  was  Rab  Kahana,  who  afterwards 
became  head  of  the  Academy  at  Pumbeditha. 
Another  senior  contemporary  and  teacher  of  Ashi 
was  Amemar  II.,  who  re-established  the  college  at 
Nehardea,  which  had  been  destroyed  over  a  century 
before,  and  for  many  years  (A.D.  390-422)  acted  as 
its  head.  Together  with  Ashi  and  Mar  Zutra  he 
officially  represented  the  Jews  at  the  court  of 
Yezdigerd  II. 

(v)  Fifth  Generation  {Babylonian)  (427-500). 
During  this  ^period  the  Academies  of  Sura  and 
Pumbeditha  were  active.  Ashi's  son,  Mar  bar  Rab 
Ashi  (Tabyomi),  did  not  immediately  succeed  his 
father,  on  the  latter's  death,  as  head  of  the  Sura 
Academy,  but  was  elected  to  the  office  twenty-eight 
years  later,  and  held  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life 
(A.D.  455-468).  He  continued  his  father's  work  on 
the  arrangement  and  compilation  of  the  Talmud. 
This  work  also  went  on  under  Rabba  Thospia    (or 


126  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Thospha'ah),  who  succeeded  Tabyomi  as  head  of 
Sura.  His  work  on  the  text  of  the  Talmud  con- 
sisted of  amplifications  and  explanatory  additions  to 
make  the  sense  of  certain  obscure  passages  clear. 

The  last  of  the  Amoraim,  who  completed  the  work 
of  the  schools  in  editing  the  Talmud,  was  Rabina^ 
(died  A.D.  499).  Under  him  the  great  work  was 
practically  brought  to  an  end.  He  was  head  of  the 
school  at  Sura. 

The  finishing  touches  were  given  by  the  so-called  "Saborai" 
("explainers"). 2  They  were  responsible  for  the  final  redaction 
of  the  text.  As  their  name  suggests,  the  "  Saborai  "  did  not 
venture  to  assume  authority  to  give  decisions  on  their  own 
responsibility,  but  confined  themselves  to  the  task  of  elucidating 
the  text,  and  making  clearer  doubtful  cases  where  the  Amoraic 
authorities  disagreed.  As  a  mediaeval  Jewish  authority  says  : 
"They  have  added  nothing  of  their  own  to  the  Talmud,  nor 
have  they  expressed  any  divergent  opinions,  merely  determining 
the  arrangement  of  the  text  of  the  Talmud  in  all  its  chapters." 

The  Babylonian  teachers  to  whom  the  designation  "  Saborai " 
is  applied  were  the  heads  of  the  Academies  at  Sura  and 
Pumbeditha  between  500  and  540.  There  was  no  corresponding 
class  of  teachers  in  Palestine. 

The  connecting  hnk  between  the  Amoraim  and  Saborai  was 
Rab  Jose,  who  presided  over  the  Academy  at  Pumbeditha 
during  the  years  A.D.  475-520.  "  Flourishing  still  for  a  number 
of  years  after  the  close  of  the  Talmud,  he  was  at  the  same  time 
the  first  of  the  Saboraim  and  must  be  considered  as  the  most 
prominent  among  them."  ^  Other  prominent  Saborai  are  Rab 
Achai  b.  Huma  and  Rab  Samuel  b.  Abbahu. 


II 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  Palestinian 
Talmud   was    completed   some   time    in    the    fourth 

1  Rabina  is  a  contraction  of  "  Rab  Abina."  This  Rabina  is 
usually  styled  by  historians  Rabina  II.  to  distinguish  him  from 
a  former  teacher  of  the  same  name  who  was  a  disciple  of  Raba. 
In  the  Talmud  both  are  called  simply  "  Rabina,"  which  some- 
times leads  to  ambiguity. 

'^  The  verb  -iid  means  "to  reason,"  "think,"  "suppose,"  or 
"  conjecture,"  and  from  it  >«-i"iid  is  derived. 

^  Mielziner,  op.  cit.  p.  55. 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  127 

century,  about  a  century  before  the  Babylonian 
Talmud.  But  who  was  responsible  for  giving  it  its 
present  shape  we  do  not  know.  It  was  apparently 
not  subjected  to  a  final  revision,  and  has  reached  us 
in  an  incomplete  form.  Possibly  some  portions  have 
been  lost. 

In  its  present  form  it  embraces  thirty-nine  of  the 
sixty-three  tractates  of  the  Mishnah,  but  in  some 
parts  of  these  the  Gemara  is  incomplete. 

All  the  tractates  of  the  orders  ("  sedarim  ")  Zera'im,  Moed, 
Nashim,  and  Nezikin  (except  'Eduyyoth  and  Aboth)  are 
included  ;  but  none  in  Kodashim  and  Teharoth  (except  Niddah). 

In  the  Babylonian  Talmud  also  the  Gemara  is 
incomplete,  only  thirty-seven  tractates  of  the  Mish- 
nah being  commented  on — actually  two  less  than  in 
the  Palestinian  Talmud.  But  the  bulk  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  is  very  considerably  larger  than  that 
of  the  Palestinian. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  tractates  which 
have  a  Gemara  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  The 
number  of  pages  folio  in  each  tractate  is  given  in 
brackets  after  each  enumeration  : 


(i)  Seder  ZeraHtn 

I.  Berakoth  (64).     [All  the  other  tractates  of  this 
Seder  are  without  a  Gemara  in  T.B.] 


(ii)  Seder  Mo' ed 


1.  Shabbath  (157). 

2.  'Erubin  (105). 

3.  Pesachin  (121). 

4.  Betzah  (41). 

5.  Chagigah  (27). 

6.  Mo'ed  Katan  (29). 


7.  Rosh  ha-shanah  (35). 

8.  Yoma  (88). 

9.  Snkkah  (56). 

10.  Ta'aiiith  (31). 

11.  Megillah  (32). 


128  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 


(iii) 

1.  Yebamoth  {\22). 

2.  Kethuboth  (112). 

3.  Kiddushin  (82). 

4.  Gittin  (90). 


Seder  N as  him 


Nedai'im  (91). 
Nazir  (66). 
Sotah  (49). 


(iv)  Seder  Nezikin 
T.  ^^.^^  kannna  (119). 


2.  ^^^<3:  metzi'ah  (119). 

3.  Baba  bathra  {i']6). 

4.  'Abodah  zarah  {76). 


Smihedrin  (113). 
Shebu'otJi  (49). 
MakkotJi  (24). 
Horayoth  (14). 


(v)  Seder  KodasJiim 


Zebachim  (120). 
Menachoth  (no). 
Bekoroth  (161). 
Chiillin  (142). 
'Arakin  (34). 


Temurah  (34). 
Kerithoth  (28). 
Me'ilaJi  (22). 
Tamid  (9). 


(vi)  Seder  Teharoth 


I.  Niddah  (73).  [All  the  other  tractates  of  this 
Seder  are  without  Gemara.] 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  tractates  in  the  first 
and  sixth  Sedarim  are  without  Gemara,  with  the 
exception  of  one  in  each  case.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  Palestinian  Talmud  has  a  Gemara  for  all 
the  tractates  of  the  first  Seder,  thus  (to  some  extent) 
supplementing  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  In  the  case 
of  the  second  Seder  the  only  tractate  that  is  without 
Gemara  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  is  Shekalim, 
The  third  Seder  {Nashim)  is  complete.  In  the 
following  Seder  i^Nezikiii)  Aboth  and  Makkoth  have 
no  Gemara,  and  this  is  also  the  case  with  the 
tractates  Middoth  and  Kinnim  in  the  fifth  Seder 
{Kodashim). 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  129 

The  figures  given  above  in  brackets  represent  the  pagination 
which  is  reproduced  in  all  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud, 
the  two  sides  of  each  leaf  being  regarded  as  one  page  numbered 
a  and  b  respectively.  In  accordance  with  this  numeration, 
references  to  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (T.B.)  are  made.  Thus 
"T.B.  Berak.  30(2"  means  that  the  reference  will  be  found  in 
the  Gemara  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  in  the  tractate  Berakoth 
on  the  first  side  of  the  folio  or  page  numbered  30. 

In  the  case  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud  references  are  some- 
times|made  in  the  same  way  (ed.  Krotoschin).  It  is  more 
usual,  however,  to  cite  by  the  Mishnaic  chapters,  each  of  which 
together  with  the  Mishnah  text  contains,  immediately  following, 
the  corresponding  Gemara,  divided  into  paragraphs  (usually 
styled  "  Halakah  i,  2,  3,,  etc."). 

It  may  be  added  that  the  text  of  the  Mishnah  (as  distinguished 
from  the  Gemara)  is  cited  according  to  chapter  and  paragraph, 
e.g.  "Berak.  vii.  2"  shows  at  a  glance  that  the  Mishnah  (not 
the  Gemara)  is  referred  to  ;  and  that  the  seventh  chapter  of  the 
tractate  Berakoth.,  and  the  second  paragraph,  are  intended. 

Besides  the  tractates  enumerated  above,  which 
form  the  text  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  proper,  a 
number  of  minor  tractates,  forming  a  sort  of  apocry- 
phal collection,  are  appended  in  the  editions,  usually 
at  the  end  of  the  fourth  Seder,  immediately  following 
'Abodah  zarah.  The  two  first  of  these  are  of  con- 
siderable value  historically  and  in  other  ways.  There 
are  seven  altogether. 

I.  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan.  This  work,  which  is 
written  in  New  Hebrew,  and  contains  forty-one 
chapters,  forms  a  kind  of  Tosephta  text  to  the 
Mishnah  treatise  Pirke  Aboth,  which,  it  will  be 
remembered,  possesses  no  Gemara.  The  general 
character  of  the  treatise  is  similar  to  that  of  Aboth, 
but  with  considerable  expansion  and  illustration  of 
the  ethical  dicta  therein  contained.  The  R.  Nathan 
to  whom  the  work  is  attributed  was  a  Tanna  of  the 
fourth  generation  (a.D.  160-200),  and  is  usually 
styled  "  the  Babylonian  "  (see  above,  p.  97),  but  in  its 
present  form  the  treatise  is  post-Talmudic. 

A  critical  edition  by  Schechter,  giving  two  recensions,  ap- 
peared in  1887  ;   a  German  translation  {Rabbi  Natka?ts  System 

K 


130  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

der  Ethik  und  Moral)  by  Kaim  Pollak  in  1905  (Frankfort-on- 
the-Main)  ;  and  an  English  translation  is  given  in  Rodkinson's 
Talmud^  vol.  1. 

2.  Sophermi  ("  Scribes  ") :  a  treatise  in  twenty-one 
chapters,  containing  rules  for  the  writing  of  the 
Pentateuch  scrolls,  as  well  as  Masoretic  and  liturgical 
rules.  The  liturgical  matter  is  of  considerable 
importance  (see  pp.  149  f). 

The  best  edition  is  that  of  Dr.  Joel  Miiller  in  2  vols.,  containing 
a  critical  Hebrew  text  with  elaborate  notes  in  German  ; 
Leipzig,  1878. 

3.  Ebel  7'abbathi  (sometimes  called  euphemistically 
SemachotJi,  "Joys"):  a  treatise  on  mourning.  It 
contains  fourteen  chapters,  and  deals  with  mourning 
and  burial  customs  and  rites. 

An  edition  of  the  original  text,  with  German  translation  and 
notes,  has  been  edited  by  M.  Klotz  (Berlin.  1890).  An  English 
translation  is  given  in  Rodkinson's  Tabniid^  vol.  viii. 

4.  Kallah  ("  Bride  ") :  a  small  tractate  consisting  of 
one  chapter,  dealing  with  the  subject  of  marriage 
(the  obligation  of  chastity  in  married  life,  etc.). 

5.  Derek  ^eretz  ("  Conduct  of  Life  ")  :  a  treatise  con- 
taining eleven  chapters  ;  it  deals  with  ethical,  social, 
and  religious  themes. 

6.  Derek  'eretz  ziita  ("  Conduct  of  Life  ;  minor 
treatise"),  in  ten  chapters,  of  the  same  general 
character  as  the  preceding. 

English  translations  of  the  two  last  mentioned  are  given  in 
Rodkinson's   Talmud^  vol.  i. 

7.  Perek  ha-shalom  ("  Chapter  on  Peace  ") :  a  small 
tractate  consisting  of  one  chapter,  which  has  for  its 
theme  the  importance  of  peacefulness. 

For  further  details  regarding  the  above,  reference  may  be 
made  to  Zunz,  G  y%  pp.  93  f. 

Another  collection  of  seven  minor  tractates  (distinct  from 
the  above),  edited,  under  the  title  Septein  libri  Tahmidici parvi 
Hierosolymitimi,  by  Raphael  Kircheim  from  an  ancient  MS,, 
appeared  in   185 1   (Frankfort-on-the-Main). 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  131 


III 

Besides  the  difference  of  language  already  referred 
to,  the  two  Talmuds  differ  markedly  in  other  respects. 
The  Palestinian  is  much  simpler  and  more  direct  in 
statement,  and  contains  (in  spite  of  its  smaller  bulk) 
a  larger  Haggadic  element  than  the  Babylonian. 
Though  many  authorities  are  cited  equally  in  both, 
neither  Talmud  quotes  directly  from  the  other. 
Owing  to  the  decay  of  the  Palestinian  schools  in  the 
fourth  century,  the  Palestinian  Talmud  was  never 
formally  completed  or  subjected  to  a  final  redaction. 
Parts  of  it  have  probably  perished,  and  what  has 
survived  is  often  fragmentary  and  incomplete.  In 
these  circumstances  it  naturally  fell  into  neglect,  and 
till  recent  times  it  was,  as  a  rule,  only  known  to 
special  scholars  among  the  Rabbis. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Babylonian  Talmud  was 
formally  completed  and  redacted,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
the  schools  of  Babylonia.  Its  development,  before 
the  final  fixing  of  its  text,  went  on  for  more  than  a 
century  later  than  the  Palestinian.  As  a  consequence, 
it  has  a  much  larger  and  more  richly  developed 
dialectic  and  casuistic  element. 

Further,  the  study  of  it  has  been  maintained  con- 
tinuously among  the  Jewish  communities,  and  so  it 
is,  par  excellence,  to  this  day  the  Talmud  for  the  mass 
of  orthodox  Jews.  After  its  completion  the  study  of 
it  spread  from  Babylon  to  Egypt,  northern  Africa, 
Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  Germany — in  a  word,  to  the 
centres  of  Jewish  communal  life.  It  is  true  that 
there  has  been  from  time  to  time  a  certain  amount 
of  reaction  against  its  predominance,  as  in  the 
Karaite  movement,  which  began  in  the  eighth 
century,  in  Babylonia  itself,  and,  later,  in  the  growth 
of  mysticism  and  mystical  movements  (Kabbalah). 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  greatest  Jews,  like 
Maimonides,  combined  the  study  of  the  Talmud  with 

K  2 


132  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

that  of  philosophy.  But  from  the  sixteenth  to  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Talmud  was  almost  the 
exclusive  preoccupation  of  the  Jews,  though  a  violent 
mystical  reaction  was  marked  by  the  rise  of 
Chasidism  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

"  The  Talmud,"  it  has  been  said,  "  is  not  a  book,  it 
is  a  literature.  It  contains  a  legal  code,  a  system  of 
ethics,  a  body  of  ritual  customs,  poetical  passages, 
prayers,  histories,  facts  of  science  and  medicine,  and 
fancies  of  folk-lore.  The  Talmud  is  not  exactly  a 
national  literature,  but  it  was  a  unique  bond  between 
the  scattered  Jews,  an  unparalleled  spiritual  and 
literary  instrument  for  maintaining  the  identity  of 
Judaism  amid  the  many  tribulations  to  which  the 
Jews  were  subjected."  ^  In  spite  of  its  many  faults — 
its  massive  incoherence,  its  lack  of  style  and  form,  its 
over-refined  subtleties  and  wearisome  casuistry — it 
remains  one  of  the  great  literary  monuments  of  the 
world.  The  work  embodied  in  it  is  immense.  If  its 
form  is  uncouth,  it  never  lacks  strength,  and  its 
grandeur  is  strange  and  arresting.  "  The  very 
incoherence  of  the  Talmud,"  a  Jewish  writer  remarks 
with  justice,  *'  its  confusion  of  voices,  is  an  index  of 
free  thinking."  ^ 

Indeed,  its  defects  must  serve  to  endear  it  to  Jewish 
eyes,  for  in  it  the  pious  Jew  sees  a  true  reflex  of  the 
labours  and  aspirations,  the  ideals  and  achievement 
of  his  race,  as  these  expressed  themselves  throughout 
a  fateful  and  fruitful  epoch.  If  it  lacks  some  of  the 
qualities  which  mark  great  literature,  it  remains  an 
arresting,  an  amazing,  and  a  weirdly  fascinating 
product  of  Jewish  genius,  a  literary  monument, 
unique  in  character,  which  faithfully  exhibits  many 
characteristic  aspects  of  the  life  and  thought  of  a 
gifted  but  peculiar  people. 

^  I.  Abrahams,  o/>.  cit.  p.  25. 

^  I.  Zangwill,  Chosen  Peoples^  p.  24 


THE  TALMUDIC  LITERATURE  133 

Additional  Note 
talmudic  commentaries  and  compendiums 

Though  the  commentaries  which  appear  in  printed 
editions  of  the  Talmud,  and  the  compendiums  of 
Talmudic  law  which  have  been  compiled  from  time 
to  time,  belong  properly  to  the  mediaeval  literature  of 
Judaism,  it  will  be  convenient  to  refer  here  to  one  or 
two  of  the  more  important  examples.  The  text  of 
the  Talmud  presents  numerous  difficulties  and 
obscurities  to  the  student ;  and  without  the  aid  of 
commentaries  even  the  Jewish  student  would  often 
be  at  a  loss.  As  a  consequence,  many  commentaries, 
written  in  Hebrew,  have  been  produced,  and  a 
selection  of  these  is  usually  printed,  below  the  text, 
in  the  printed  editions.^ 

The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  commentary  of 
Rabbi  Shelomoh  Yishaki  of  Troyes  (a.d.  1040-1105), 
who  is  usually  styled,  from  the  initials  of  his  name, 
"  Rashi."  This  commentary,  which  embraces  nearly 
all  the  tractates  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  is  always 
printed  in  editions  of  that  work.^  It  is,  indeed, 
indispensable  for  the  study  and  elucidation  of  the 
Talmudic  text.  Remarkable  alike  for  its  brevity  and 
lucidity,  "  by  a  few  plain  words  it  often  sheds  light 
upon  the  obscurest  passages  and  unravels  the  most 
entangled  arguments  of  the  Talmudical  discussions. 

^  The  best  complete  edition  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  is  the 
Wilna  edition  of  the  Widow  and  Brothers  Romm  (1880-86  in 
25  vols.).  In  this  a  large  number  of  commentaries  are  given, 
among  others  that  of  Rabbenu  Chananel  (nS)  of  Kai rowan 
(Africa),  who  flourished  about  A.D.  1050,  and  commented  on  a 
large  part  of  the  Talmud.  A  full  list  of  Talmud  commentaries 
will  be  found  in  the  article  "  Talmud  Commentaries  "  in  JE  xii. 
27-30. 

'  An  unfortunate  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  text,  accom- 
panied by  a  German  translation,  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  by 
Goldschmidt  in  several  volumes  (not  yet  complete).  Gold- 
schmidt's  text  is  printed  without  any  commentaries. 


134  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

As  if  anticipating  the  slightest  hesitation  of  the 
inexperienced  student,  it  offers  him  at  once  the 
needed  explanation,  or  at  least  a  hint  that  leads  him 
the  right  way.  It  has  truly  been  said  that,  but  for 
this  peerless  commentary  of  Rashi,  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  would  have  remained  as  neglected  as  the 
Palestinian."  ^  Rashi's  comments  also  often  indicate 
and  establish  the  true  Talmudic  text,  where  this  has 
been  corrupted. 

In  addition  to  Rashi's  commentary,  proper,^  which 
is  printed  in  the  inner  margins,  the  editions  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud  have  also  a  number  of 
annotations  and  glosses,  printed  in  the  outer  margins, 
which  are  called  Tosaphoth  ( =  "  Additions  ").  They 
do  not  form  a  running  commentary  (like  Rashi's),  but 
take  the  form  of  separate  notes,  and  often  embody 
discussions  of  difficult  passages,  and  occasionally 
criticise  the  explanation  given  by  Chananel  or  Rashi. 
Often,  too,  they  attempt  to  harmonise  contradictory 
passages  or  meet  possible  objections,  and  are  full  of 
subtle  dialectic.  The  authors  of  these  additions, 
called  Tosaphists  {cp.  pp.  231  f.),  were  numerous,  and 
flourished  in  France  and  Germany  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  They  are  partly  identical 
with  the  authors  who  supplemented  missing  parts  of 
Rashi's  commentaries.^ 

Commentaries  were  also  written  on  the  Mishnah  as 

^  Mielziner,  op.  cit.  p.  66. 

^  Rashi's  commentary,  where  incomplete,  was  supplemented 
by  his  relatives  and  disciples.  Thus  his  son-in-law,  R.  Jehuda 
b.  Nathan,  completed  the  commentary  on  Makkoth^  his  grand- 
son, R.  Samuel  b.  Meir  ("  Rashbam "),  that  on  Baba  bathra  ; 
while  the  commentary  on  Nedarim  was  completed  by  supplying 
the  missing  portion  from  the  work  of  Rabbenu  Gershom,  a 
predecessor  of  Rashi. 

2  The  mDDin  'poD  ("Decisions  of  the  Tosaphoth")  which  are 
appended  in  the  editions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  at  the  end 
of  each  tractate  are  the  work  of  an  anonymous  compiler  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  who  collected  from  the  Tosaphoth  the 
practical  results  of  their  discussions  and  decisions. 


THE   TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  135 

an  independent  work.  The  best  known  is  that  of 
Maimonides  (twelfth  century),  which  was  composed 
in  Arabic^  and  afterwards  translated  into  Hebrew  (by- 
several  hands).  The  Hebrew  translation  is  usually 
printed  in  editions  of  the  Talmud.  Another  well- 
known  commentary  on  the  entire  Mishnah  is  that  of 
R.  Obadiah  of  Bertinoro,  in  Italy,  who  was  Rabbi  in 
Jerusalem  in  the  sixteenth  century  (died  A.D.  15 10). 
Both  these  commentaries  are  given  in  a  Latin  trans- 
lation in  Surenhusius'  great  edition  of  the  Mishnah 
(6  vols.,  Amsterdam,  A.D.  1 698-1 703). 

Commentaries  were  also  written  by  distinguished  scholars  on 
separate  tractates,  especially  on  those  which  have  ho  Gemara  in 
the  Babylonian  Talmud,  and  which  are,  therefore,  not  included 
in  Rashi's  commentary.  Thus  R.  Simson  of  Sens  (twelfth 
century),  a  famous  Tosaphist,  completed  a  commentary  on  all 
the  tractates  of  Seder  Zera'im,  except  Bcrakoth^  and  on  all 
those  of  Seder  Teharoth,  except  Niddah.  A  similar  series  on 
the  same  tractates  was  completed  by  R.  Asher  b.  Jechiel 
(thirteenth  century).  An  important  commentary  on  the  tractate 
Middoth  (for  which  there  is  no  Gemara)  was  written  by  R. 
Shemaya,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Rashi. 

The  commentaries  on  the  Palestinian  Talmud  are  few,  none 
older,  apparently,  than  the  sixteenth  century.  Some  of  the 
more  important  are  comparatively  modern. 

As  the  Babylonian  Talmud  possessed  not  only  a 
theoretic  but  also  a  practical  interest  for  all  orthodox 
Jews,  since  it  was  the  source  of  the  laws  which 
regulated  religious  practice,  it  was  inevitable  that 
attempts  should  be  made  to  codify  in  systematic 
form  the  rules  and  regulations  which  were  binding 
for  practical  life  and  conduct.  In  these  epitomes  or 
codes  the  irrelevant  elements,  such  as  the  Haggadic 
material  and  the  lengthy  discussions,  were  either 
wholly  omitted  or  condensed,  and  the  relevant 
material  was  systematised. 

^  Maimonides  commenced  it  in  the  twenty-third  year  of  his 
age  in  Spain,  and  finished  it  in  his  thirtieth  year  in  Egypt. 


136  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

The  most  important  compendiums  are  those  of 

(a)  R.  Isaac  Alfasi  (born  at  Fez,  in  Africa,  1013 
died  1 103  in  Spain),  who  is  usually  styled  from  the 
initials  of  his  names  "  Rif."  ^  This  is  a  real  com- 
pendium, being  an  abridgement  of  the  Talmud,  the 
style  and  language  of  which  it  retains. 

(d)  R.  Asher  b.  Jechiel,  already  mentioned  (died 
1327),  a  German  Rabbi,  who  died  in  Spain. 
R.  Asher  modelled  his  work  on  that  of  Alfasi,  adding 
the  opinions  of  later  authorities.  This  compendium 
is  printed  in  the  editions  of  the  Talmud  at  the  end  of 
each  tractate.^ 

A  codification  of  the  Talmudic  legal  material  in 
the  strict  sense  was  first  accomplished  by  Maimonides 
in  his  great  work  Mishneh  Z"^r«>^  (  =  "  Repetition  of 
the  Law ").  It  embraces  the  material  included  in 
both  Talmuds,  or  based  upon  such,  with  occasional 
references  to  the  opinions  of  the  post-Talmudic 
authorities,  the  Geonim.  It  is  written  in  New 
Hebrew,  in  a  lucid  and  attractive  style,  and  is  divided 
into  fourteen  books  ;  hence  the  popular  name  for  the 
collection,  Sepher  ha-yad  ("  Book  of  the  Hand  " — the 
Hebrew  w^ord  for  "  hand,"  ^1  =  numerically  14),  and 

later,  by  way  of  distinction,  Yad  ha-chazakah 
(nptnil  T'  "  The  Strong  Hand ").  Each  book  is 
divided  into  "  Halakoth,"  and  these  again  are  sub- 
divided into  "  sections  "  or  "  chapters  "  {perakirn)  and 
paragraphs,  Maimonides'  work  also  became  the 
basis  for  later  commentaries  and  annotations,  which 
are  usually  printed  with  it. 

A  code  which  deserves  mention  here  is  that  known  as  "  the 
great  Law-Book"  (bn:  niijn  "-6)  of  R.Moses  of  Courcy,  in  France 
(thirteenth   century).     Here   the   Talmudic   laws   are   grouped 


^  His  work  is  often  cited  as  n^i  or  ^dd^n- 
2  Under  the  title  -i^rt^  i:'n"i- 


THE  TALMUDIC   LITERATURE  137 

under  613  precepts  (positive  laws  and  prohibitions),  which  is  the 
number  of  such  enactments  found,  according  to  the  Rabbis, 
n  the  Pentateuch. 

Another  important  codification  bears  the  title 
Tiirim  ( = "  Rows,"  i.e.  "  rows  of  laws  ").  This  was 
compiled  by  R.  Jacob,  son  of  the  R.  Asher  b.  Jechiel 
already  referred  to.  It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz. 
Tur  orach  chayyim^  dealing  with  liturgical  laws  ;  Tur 
yorek  de'ah,  dealing  with  ritual  laws  ;  Tur  'ebeft  hd- 
'ezer,  dealing  with  marriage  laws  ;  and  Tur  choshen 
mishpat^  dealing  with  civil  laws.  Each  part  is  divided 
up  into  sections,  with  appropriate  headings,  according 
to  subject-matter ;  and  each  section  is  subdivided 
into  smaller  portions  called  semdnim.  The  Turivi 
differ  from  the  Mishnth  Torah  of  Maimonides  in 
that  they  deal  only  with  those  laws  and  customs 
which  are  in  actual  use,  all  others  being  disregarded. 
It  thus  embraces  rites  and  customs  which  are  of  post- 
Talmudic  origin. 

The  printed  editions  usually  give  the  commentaries  on  the 
Turini  by  R.  Joseph  Karo  (this  commentary  being  styled  Beth 
Joseph)  and  by  R.  Moses  Isserles  {Darke  Mosheh). 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  codifications,  and  the 
one  that  has  established  itself  as  authoritative  among 
orthodox  Jews,  even  down  to  the  present  day,  is  the 
work  of  the  Joseph  Karo  already  referred-  to 
(sixteenth  century).  Taking  the  Turini  and  his  own 
commentary  thereon  as  a  basis,  and  retaining  its 
four  divisions  with  their  titles,  he  remodelled  the 
entire  contents  so  as  to  give  it  the  character  of  a  text- 
book of  law.  This  remodelled  work  is  known  as  the 
Shulchan  ^Aruk  ("The  Prepared  Table"),  and  is 
widely  used  by  orthodox  Jews.  The  author's  con- 
temporary, R.  Moses  Isserles  (^•^'^O"^),  added 
numerous  annotations  ;  and  these,  with  a  number  of 
commentaries  which  have  been  produced,  are  usually 
printed  with  the  text  in  the  folio  editions. 


138  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

A  word  may  here  be  added  as  to  the  collections  of  Haggadic 
material  froni  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  A  well-known  one  which 
is  very  comprehensive  is  the  ''En  Ja''akob  ("Well  of  Jacob") 
of  R.  Jacob  ibn  Chabib  (beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century). 
Vol.  I.  of  an  English  translation  has  recently  been  published 
(by  S.  H.  Click)  in  New  York  (1919).  A  similar  collection  made 
from  the  Palestinian  Talmud  was  published,  with  a  commentary, 
by  R.  Samuel  Japhe  (Vienna,  1590,  reprinted  Berlin,  1725-26) 
under  the  title  Yepheh  mar'eh  (ns-ra  nc'). 


PART    III 

THE   JEWISH    LITURGY 


PART    III 

THE   JEWISH    LITURGY 

[Literature  (selected)  :  Zunz,  Zur  Geschichte  und  Literatur 
(1845)  ;  Zunz,  Syiiagogale  Poesie  des  Mittelalters  (1855)  ;  Zunz, 
Die  Ritus  des  synagogalen  Gottesdienstes  geschichtlich  entivickelt 
(1859);  Baer,  Seder  Abodath  Israel  (1868);  Zunz,  Die 
^ottesdienstlichen  Vortrdge  der  Juden^  histofisch  entivickelt 
(1892) /M.  Friedlander,  The  Jewish  Religion  (1900);  Morris 
Joseph,  y^/^<a!ZJ-;;/  as  Creed  and  Life^  pp.  177-318  (1903); 
Seeberg,  Die  Didache  des  Jtcdentums  und  der  Urchristenheit 
(1908)  ;  Duchesne,  Les  Origines  dii  culie  chretien  (1910)  ; 
Oesterley,  The  Psalms  in  the  Jeivish  Church  (19 10)  ;  Oesterley 
and  Box,  The  Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Sy?tagogue  (19 12)  ; 
Elbogen,  Bemerkungeii  zur  alien  jiidischen  Liturgie^  in  "  Studies 
in  Jewish  Literature,  issued  in  honour  of  Prof.  Kaufmann 
Kohler  "  (1913)  ;  Elbogen,  Der  jiidische  Gottesdienst  in  seiner 
geschichtlichen  Entwickelung  (191 3);  Schwaab,  Historische 
Rinfiihrung  in  das  Achtzehngebet  (191 3)  ;  Sravvley,  The  Early 
History  of  the  Liturgy  (191 3)  ;  Abrahams,  Aftnotated  Edition 
of  the  Authorised  Daily  Prayer  Book  (1914)  ;  Rendtorff,  Die 
Geschichte  des  christlichen  Gottesdienstes  imter  de?n  Gesichts- 
punkt  der  liturgischen  Erbfolge  (1914).  The  relevant  articles 
in  Hamburger's  Realencyclopddie  des  Judenthums  and  in  the 
Jewish  Encyclopcedia.'] 

I 

SOME   PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS 

The  importance  and  interest  of  the  Jewish  Liturgy 
— especially,  of  course,  in  its  earlier  elements — for  the 
study  of  Christian  origins  is  not  generally  recognised  ; 
not  that  this  is  a  matter  for  surprise,  for  the  Jewish 
Liturgy,  in  whatever  forms  at  present  existent  (and 

141 


142  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

they  are  various),  is  so  complex  and  involved  to  the 
uninitiated  that  the  ordinary  reader  of  it,  even  as  it 
exists  in  its  English  and  much  abbreviated  form,  is 
not  unnaturally  somewhat  overwhelmed  when  he  first 
comes  to  read  it.  Nevertheless,  there  is  an  immense 
deal  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy  which  is  of  profound 
importance  and  interest  for  the  student  of  Christian 
origins ;  and  that  interest  must  be  greatly  enhanced 
when  it  is  realised  that  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy  are 
embedded  the  prayers,  praises,  and  thanksgivings 
offered  up  by  Our  Lord  Himself,  by  His  disciples, 
and  by  the  Jewish-Christians  of  the  first  century. 
The  earliest  accounts  which  we  have  of  the  Christian 
Liturgy — fragmentary  and  incomplete  as  they  are — 
show  clearly  enough  that  the  worship  of  the  early 
Church  was  influenced  by  that  of  the  synagogue.  In 
the  primitive  Church  Order  contained  in  the  Didache} 
chaps,  vii.-xv.,  the  prayers  are  distinctly  Jewish  in 
character  and  reveal  many  phrases  and  ideas  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy.  The  same  is 
true  of  certain  passages,  dealing  with  the  worship  of 
the  early  Church,  in  the  epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome 
to  the  Corinthians  \^  concerning  them  Srawley  says  : 
"  These  passages,  then,  suggest  that  certain  ideas  and 
stereotyped  phrases  had  found  a  place  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Christian  worship,  and  that  a  certain 
defined  type  of  prayer  had  become  current,  based 
upon  Christian  terminology,  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  forms  of  the  synagogue  worship."  ^  The  same 
writer,  in  speaking  of  Justin  Martyr's  account^  of 
the  Sunday  Eucharist,  points  out  that  it  shows  that 
''  the  separation  of  the  Eucharist  from  the  Agape  had 
already  been  effected,  and  'the  service  of  the  word,' 
which    in    later    times    was    known    as    the    Missa 

^  First  half  of  the  second  century. 

^  Written  about  a.d.  95. 

■'  The  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy,  p.  31  (191 3). 

*  Circa  a.d.    150. 


SOME   PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS  143 

Catechumenomm,  consisting  of  lessons  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  a  sermon,  and  prayers,  had 
established  itself  as  the  introductory  portion  of  the 
liturgy.  This  preliminary  *  service  of  the  word ' 
shows  the  influence  of  the  religious  services  of  the 
Jewish  synagogues,  which  included  the  same  three 
elements,  prayers,  lessons,  and  homily."  ^ 

But,  even  apart  from  this,  there  are  two  considera- 
tions regarding  the  Jewish  Liturgy  which  should 
commend  it  at  least  to  the  sympathetic  notice  of  all 
students  of  religion.  As  has  been  truly  pointed  out,^ 
it  is  the  earliest  form  of  divine  service  which  was 
offered  with  great  regularity  not  only  on  Sabbaths 
and  festivals,  but  on  every  day  throughout  the  year ; 
with  the  result  that  the  whole  life  of  the  nation 
became  influenced  by  religious  thought  and  the 
religious  spirit,  and  a  national  unity  was  brought 
into  existence  which  nothing  else  could  have 
effected.^  And  there  is  also  this  consideration,  that 
nowhere  is  the  history  of  the  growth  of  religious 
ideas  more  clearly  revealed  than  in  the  modification 
or  development  of  liturgical  forms  ;  therein  are 
reflected  ultimately  the  religious  thoughts  and  con- 
ceptions which  through  centuries  perhaps  had  been 
growling  in  the  minds  of  a  people  ;  there  they  become 
stereotyped  ;  and  there  they  remain  until  a  further 
advance  in  religious  conceptions  demands  some 
modification.  In  the  Jewish  Liturgy  we  have  an 
excellent  example  of  this  ;  and  the  observation  of 
the  changes  which  it  has  undergone  has  its  advan- 
tages for  the  Christian  student  of  religion,  inasmuch 
as  in  studying  the  phases  of  religious  ideas  as 
reflected  in  a  liturgy  other  than  one's  own  one  can 

^  op.  cit.  p.  yj. 

2  Elbogen,  Der  jiidische  Gottesdienst  in  seiner  geschichtlichen 
Entwickelung^  p.  2  (191 3). 

3  That  such  a  religious  unity  did  not  exist  in  earlier  days 
in  Israel  is  shown  clearly  enQUgh  by  the  Prophets. 


144  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

approach  and  deal  with  the  subject  in  a  spirit  of 
greater  detachment  than,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
is  possible  when  dealing  with  that  which  is  one's  own. 

Complicated  as  the  Jewish  Liturgy  is  in  its  present 
form,  it  is  far  less  so  now  than  it  was  in  days  gone 
by ;  while  in  its  first  beginnings  it  was  simple  in 
form,  various  circumstances  contributed  to  its  develop- 
ment, and  during  the  Middle  Ages  this  development 
increased  to  an  enormous  extent,  so  much  so  that  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  it  became  altogether 
overloaded  with  extraneous  matter,  much  of  which 
was  not  worthy  of  a  place  in  this  venerable  liturgy. 
It  was,  however,  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  a  thoroughgoing  reform  of  the 
Jewish  Liturgy  was  initiated. 

The  first  cause  of  development  was  the  outcome  of 
a  natural  desire  to  put  into  the  prayers  and  thanks- 
givings a  fuller  expression  of  thought  and  aspiration  ; 
then  there  grew  up  a  tendency  to  incorporate  in  the 
Liturgy  the  devotions  which  had  been  framed  by 
outstanding  religious  leaders  ;  historical  occurrences 
of  national  interest  also  offered  material  which  was 
incorporated  in  the  prayers,  and,  these  becoming 
stereotyped,  continued  to  be  used  even  when  the 
original  cause  to  which  they  owed  their  form  was  for- 
gotten. But  the  most  pronounced  period  of  develop- 
ment of  the  Jewish  Liturgy  commenced  in  the  sixth 
to  the  seventh  century,  approximately,  with  the  incor- 
poration of  Piyyutirn  (a  corrupt  form  from  the  Greek 
word  for  "  poet,"  see  p.  272)  ;  these  were  poetical  com- 
positions of  very  varying  quality  and  of  great  number 
which  by  degrees  found  a  place  in  the  Liturgy  and 
increased  its  bulk  to  a  very  appreciable  extent.  Most 
of  these  poems  have  now  been  eliminated  ;  the  i&'N 
that  remain  are  the  most  choice  and  are  fully  worthy 
of  their  place  ;  they  will  be  referred  to  later  on. 

In  the  course  of  the  centuries  various  liturgical 
"  Uses,"  technically  called  Minhagim,  have  come  into 


SOME   PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS  145 

existence,  differing  more  or  less  from  each  other, 
though  the  original  groundwork  is  to  be  discerned  in 
each.  Two  main  groups,  the  Palestinian  and  the 
Babylonian,  are  recognised  ;  the  foremost  represen- 
tatives of  either  group  are  the  Ashkenazic  and 
Sephardic  Rites  respectively  ;  ^  there  are  subdivisions 
of  less  importance,  which  need  not,  however,  concern 
us.  The  Rite  to  which,  in  the  main,  we  shall  direct 
our  attention  is  the  Ashkenazic  ;  thi«  has  been  pub- 
lished in  a  most  convenient  form  in  Hebrew  and 
English.^  The  Sephardic  Rite  is  much  more  elabo- 
rate, containing  as  it  does  a  great  deal  of  the  material 
which  grew  up  in  the  Middle  Ages.^ 

One  of  the  first  things  which  will  strike  even  a 
cursory  reader  of  the  Jewish  Liturgy  is  its  Scriptural 
atmosphere ;  the  incorporation  of  Biblical  phrases 
and  passages  in  the  synagogue  prayers  is  one  of 
their  marked  characteristics.  The  Psalms  are  espe- 
ciall}'  drawn  upon  here,  and,  of  course,  the  books  of 
the  Law  are  utilised  largely  for  this  purpose.  But,  in 
addition  to  this,  long  passages  from  Scripture  (e.g. 
Exod.  XV.)  and  a  copious  use  of  Psalms  constitute  a 
considerable  part  of  all  the  services.  The  important 
place  which  from  the  earliest  times  was  accorded  to 
the  interpretation  and  explanation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment^ further  emphasises  the  desire  felt  for  making 
the  Scriptures  the  foundation  of  the  liturgical  struc- 
ture, and  illustrates  what  has  always  been  one  of  the 
great  principles  of  Jewish  religious  practice,  viz.  that 

^  But  see  Caster,  The  Book  of  Prayer  and  Order  of  Service, 
p.  xiv  (1901),  who  maintains  that  the  Sephardic  Rite  represents 
the  Palestinian  tradition. 

^  The  Annotated  Edition  of  the  Authorised  Daily  Prayer 
Book^  with  historical  and  explanatory  notes,  and  additional 
matter,  compiled  in  accordance  with  the  plans  of  the  Rev.  S. 
Singer,  by  Israel  Abrahams  (1914). 

^  These  forms  are  printed  in  Forms  of  Prayer  by  De  Sola 
(5  vols.)  ;  new  edition  by  Dr.  Casker,  1901-6. 

*  Hence  the  rise  of  the  Targums. 

L 


146  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

instruction  in  the  Word  of  God  is  an  indispensable 
part  of  worship. 

The  influence  which,  especially,  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  Psalms  have  had  upon  both  the  language 
and  the  thought  of  the  Jewish  Liturgy  can  be 
paralleled  by  the  like  influence  which  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  and  the  Apocalypse  have  had  upon 
the  early  liturgies  of  the  Church. 

In  the  Jewish  .Liturgy  the  general  term  for  prayer 
is  Berakhah,  the  root  of  which,  in  its  original  signifi- 
cation, means  "  to  kneel  down  " ;  but  the  noun  came 
to  mean  that  for  which  a  man  knelt  down,  i.e. 
prayer.  Further,  the  act  of  kneeling  in  prayer  to  God 
implied  the  recognition  of  His  Blessedness,  i.e.  of 
His  power  and  mercy  and  goodness  ;  hence  Berakhah 
also  connotes  praise ;  and  finally,  since  every  act  of 
praise  involves  thanksgiving,  this,  too,  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  meaning  of  Berakhah.  The  word  has, 
therefore,  come  to  have  a  very  wide  connotation,  and 
is  usually  translated  "  Benediction,"  which  is  intended 
to  embrace  the  ideas  of  prayer,  praise,  and  thanks- 
giving. Moreover,  this  word  is  the  more  appropriate 
since  the  fixed  form  which,  in  course  of  time,  the 
Berakhah  tended  to  assume  began  with  "  Blessed  is 
He  .  .  ."  or  *'  Blessed  art  Thou  .  .  ."  ;  this  is  not  neces- 
sarily always  so  now,  though  these  words  do  occur 
somewhere  in  every  Benediction,  properly  so  called. 
A  notable  example  of  this  is  the  Benediction  with 
which  the  actual  service  (apart  from  its  introductory 
portion)  for  the  daily  Morning  Prayer  opens  ;  this 
contains  a  ninefold  "  Blessed  be  He,"  and  concludes 
with :  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  a  King  extolled 
with  praises."  The  classical  example,  however,  is  the 
great  prayer  called  the  SJiemoneh  'Esreh  ("  Eighteen 
Benedictions  "),  of  which  we  shall  have  much  to  say 
later  on.  Benedictions  are  also  used  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a  framework  in  which  some  of  the  more 
important  and  ancient  portions  of  the  service  are  set ; 


SOME   PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS  147 

we  shall  see  this  illustrated  when  we  come  to  examine 
the  service  for  Mornin^  Prayer. 

Originally  the  prayers  of  the  synagogue  were 
variable ;  they  were  not  written  down  until  about 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century.  An  old  Jewish  sage  used 
to  say  that  "  he  who  writes  down  prayers  sins  as 
though  he  burned  the  Torah."^  The  subject-matter 
of  the  prayers  was  fixed,  but  the  form  of  words  in 
which  the  prayer  was  offered  up  was  left  to  the  indi- 
vidual leader  in  prayer.  All  the  prayers  were  origin- 
ally quite  short ;  the  essence  of  the  prayer-leader's 
task  lay  in  guiding  the  congregation  in  regard  to  the 
subject  of  prayer ;  it  was  then  left  to  each  individual 
to  elaborate  this  for  himself  in  silent  prayer  and 
meditation.  It  is  a  point  worth  emphasising  that 
provision  was  thus  officially  made  for  silent  prayer 
and  meditation  during  public  worship  ;  we  shall  have 
to  return  to  the  subject  later  on.  The  extempore 
character  of  the  prayers  in  the  early  synagogue 
seems  to  have  been  followed  in  the  worship  of  the 
early  Church,  judging  by  the  testimony  of  Justin 
Martyr  {Dialogue  with  Trypho,  c.  6y\ 

A  further  characteristic  of  the  synagogue  prayers 
is  their  national  note  ;  it  is  not  only  the  individual 
congregation  which  prays,  but  the  congregation  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  Jewish  nation.  In  the  Christian 
Church  this  feeling  of  national  unity  is  further 
enlarged  and  enhanced  by  that  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  which  transcends  national  limitations. 

A  word  must  be  said  regarding  the  part  originally 
taken  by  the  laity  in  the  worship  of  the  synagogue. 
Just  as  the  priests  and  Levites  were  divided  into 
twenty-four  courses  or  classes,  which  in  turn  under- 
took the  duties  of  the  daily  services  in  the  Temple, 
and  relieved  each  other  week  by  week,  so  the  Jewish 

^  The  idea  underlying  this  objection  to  the  writing  down  of 
prayers  was  that  of  fear  lest  the  holy  words  should  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  profane. 

L   2 


148  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

laity  was  also,  in  like  manner,  represented  by  twenty- 
four  classes.  These  classes,  or  courses,  were  collec- 
tively called  Mishmaroth  ("  watches ")  ;  ^  the  par- 
ticular individual  class  was  called  a  Ma'amad 
("standing");  it  was  so  called  because  these  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  "  stood  "  before  God  during 
the  offering  of  the  daily  services.''^  But  there  was 
this  difference  between  the  priestly  and  Levitical  and 
the  lay  classes,  that,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  former 
the  entire  class  went  up  to  the  Temple  when  its  turn 
came,  in  the  case  of  the  latter  only  a  few  represen- 
tatives went  up,  and  the  remainder  assembled  in 
their  local  synagogue,  where  they  offered  up  daily 
prayers  and  read  the  Scriptures.^  When  this  duty 
of  offering  prayer  in  what  may  be  called  an  official 
capacity  by  the  laity  began  cannot  be  stated  with 
certainty ;  but  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it 
arose,  in  some  form  or  other,  soon  after  the  return 
from  the  Exile,  when  the  beginnings  of  so  much 
that  belongs  to  the  later  Judaism  are  to  be  sought. 
The  custom  is  important  both  because  it  witnesses 
to  the  official  recognition  of  the  laity  taking  their 
part  in  public  divine  worship,  and  because  it  wit- 
nesses to  the  emphasis  laid  on  prayer  as  distinct 
from  sacrifices  even  while  the  Temple  with  its  full 
sacrificial  system  was  in  existence. 

The  present  Jewish  Liturgy  is  the  product  of 
many  centuries  of  development.  The  beginning  of 
a  Jewish  Prayer  Book  in  the  modern  sense  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  A.D. 
approximately,  and,  as  a  compilation,  was  originally 

*  ni-iDiiJD  ;  the  word  occurs  in  reference  to  the  "  observances  " 
of  the  House  of  God  in  Neh.  xiii.  14. 

2  cp.  Ps.  cxxxiv.  I,  where  the  word  is  used  in  this  technical 
sense. 

2  See  Mishnah,  Taa?tiih'\\.  1-4;  cp.  Tamid  v\\.\  see  further 
Schurer,  Geschichte  des  jiidischeti  Volkes^  ii.  337  f.:  Elbogen, 
op.  cit.  p.  237. 


SOURCES  OF  THE   PRESENT  LITURGY  149 

based  on  the  dictum  of  Rabbi  Meir,  about  A.D.  150, 
to  the  effect  that  a  man  should  utter  daily  a  hundred 
Benedictions.  For  a  long  period,  of  several  centuries, 
different  Prayer  Books  were  compiled  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  "  Hundred  Benedictions."  ^ 

II 
SOURCES   OF   THE   PRESENT   LITURGY 

Although  the  Jewish  Liturgy  belongs  in  its  origins 
to  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  earliest  written  liturgical  details 
belong  to  a  much  later  time.  This  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  in  ancient  times  it 
was  regarded  as  a  sinful  act  to  write  down  prayers. 
It  was  not  until  the  completion  of  the  Talmud  in 
the  sixth  century  that  prayers  began  to  be  written 
down.  Many  liturgical  notes  and  much  information 
regarding  the  early  Liturgy  are,  however,  to  be  found 
scattered  about  in  the  Mishnah,  Talmud,  and  Midrashic 
works.  But  obviously  a  fixed  Liturgy  must  have  been 
long  in  existence,  since  it  is  referred  to  as  so  well 
known  in  these  writings. 

The  earliest  source  which  gives  a  connected  and 
detailed  account  of  the  Liturgy  is  the  tractate 
Sopherini,  belonging  to  about  A.D.  600  (see  p.  130). 
It  is  the  latter  part  of  this  tractate,  chaps,  xvi.-xxi., 
in  which  many  liturgical  details  are  preserved.  It  is 
Palestinian  in  origin,  like  all  the  smaller  treatises. 
There  are,  besides  this,  various  collections  of  liturgical 
prayers  which  have  been  made  from  time  to  time, 
and  other  early  writings  dealing  specifically  with  the 
Liturgy,  which  arc  invaluable  since  they  contain  a 
mass  of  traditional  matter  regarding  the  content, 
order,  and  ceremonial  of  the  services  of  the  Temple 
as  well  as   of  the.  synagogue.     The   earliest   extant 

*  ni3-\n  HMO,  Elbogen,  op.  cit.  pp.  7  f ,  358, 


150  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

collection  of  prayers  is  what  is  called  the  "  Hundred 
Benedictions "  of  Natronai  {circa  A.D.  860).  But  the 
first  Jewish  Prayer  Book,  so  far  as  is  at  present 
known,  is  that  of  Amram  (about  A.D.  875),^  which 
contains  the  Sephardic,  or  Spanish,  Rite.  The  next 
in  date  is  the  Siddur-  of  Saadya  (892-942);  then 
follows  the  great  Machsor^  Vitry  {circa  iioo),  com- 
piled by  Simcha  ben  Samuel,  of  Vitry;  it  represents 
the  ancient  French  Rite,  which  is  closely  connected 
with  the  more  widespread  German,  or  Ashkenazic, 
Rite.*  Among  the  more  notable  works  of  the 
Middle  Ages  important  for  the  details  they  give 
concerning  the  early  Liturgy  are  :  the  Mishneh  Tor  ah 
of  Maimonides  (i  180),  in  the  concluding  book  of  which 
the  text  of  the  prayers  is  given,  as  well  as  various 
authoritative  decisions  concerning  the  Liturgy  in 
other  parts  of  the  work  ;  the  Mijihag^  of  Abraham 
ben  Nathan  ha-Jarchi,  belonging  to  the  same  time 
as  the  preceding ;  and  David  Abudraham's  com- 
mentary on  the  Prayer  Book  (1340).^ 

As  in  the  Christian  Church  there  are  different 
Liturgies,  the  Roman,  Gallican,  Sarum,  etc.,  so,  too, 
in  the  Jewish  Church  ;  but  in  the  latter  all  go  back 
to  one  of  two  fundamental  Rites,  the  Palestinian  and 
the  Babylonian.  The  former  has  been  almost 
entirely  superseded,  and  even  the  fragments  of  it  to 
be  found  in  the  Talmud  show  Babylonian  impress  ; 
it  is,  however,  represented  in  the  tractate  Sophe^'irn^ 
in  the  Siddiir  of  Saadya,  and  in  the  Machsor   Vitry  ; 

Mt  is  published  by  A.  Mark  in  Jahrbuch  der  jiidischen 
literarischen  Gesellschaft^  v.  (1907)  ;  also  by  A.  Frumkin 
(Jerusalem  5672). 

^  Siddur  means  the  "  Order "  of  prayers  ;  no  published 
edition  of  this  exists  as  yet. 

^  Machsor  also  means  "Order"  of  prayers,  but  one  which 
contains  more  detail  and  explanation  than  a  Siddur. 

■*  It  is  published  by  Luzzato  (1889). 

^  Minhag  means  ritual  "custom"  or  "use." 

®  Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  n. 


NON-SACRIFICIAL  ELEMENTS  151 

Amram  represents  the  Babylonian  Rite.  As  for  the 
two  chief  forms  of  the  Liturgy  in  present  use,  the 
Sephardic  and  the  Ashkenazic,  the  former  represents 
the  Babylonian  Rite  ;  ^  it  is  used  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  where  the  Sephardic,  or  Spanish,  Jews  have 
settled.  The  Ashkenazic  Liturgy  represents  the 
Palestinian  Rite  ;  this  is  used,  with  certain  variations, 
mainly  in  England,  America,  Germany,  Holland, 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Italy.^ 


Ill 

NON-SACRIFICIAL    ELEMENTS   IN    THE   TEMPLE 
WORSHIP 

The  present  Jewish  Liturgy  is  a  greatly  developed 
form  of  the  early  (pre-Christian)  synagogue  worship. 
But  the  early  synagogal  Liturgy,  which  consisted 
purely  of  spiritual  worship,  was  derived  from  the 
worship  of  the  Temple,  with  its  sacrificial  system. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  seek  to  trace  out  the  origin 
and  background  of  the  earliest  elements  in  the 
Jewish  Liturgy,  it  is  necessary  to  try  to  discover 
whether  any  elements  of  worship  apart  from  the 
sacrificial  system  existed  in  the  Temple  Liturgy. 
Although  in  the  synagogal  Liturgy  the  counterpart 
of  the  sacrificial  worship  had  its  place,^  direct  and 
indirect  evidence  is  forthcoming  that  there  existed 
in  the  Temple  worship  itself  certain  elements  dis- 
tinct from  the  sacrificial  service,  and  it  is  in  these 
that  the  real  origin  of  the  synagogal  Liturgy  is  to 
be  found. 

1  Though,  as  noted  above,  Caster  denies  this. 

2  In  Italy  the  Sephardic  Rite  is  also  used  where  there  are 
Sephardic  Jews. 

^  It  is  insisted  upon  again  and  again  in  the  Talmud  that  the 
prayers  of  the  synagogal  Liturgy  were  instituted  to  correspond 
with  the  sacrifices,  e.g.  Berakhoth  i^b.^  referred  to  by  Blau  in 
JE  viii.  132^. 


152  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Important  evidence  on  this  point  may  be  gathered 
from  Is.  i.  12-15.  Although  the  prophet  is  here 
inveighing  against  the  hollowness  and  insincerity  of 
the  people's  worship  of  God,  his  words  show,  none 
the  less,  that  there  existed  in  the  Temple  forms  of 
worship  apart  from  the  sacrificial  system ;  for,  in 
addition  to  the  multitudes  of  sacrifices,  oblations,  and 
incense,  he  speaks  not  only  of  the  observance  of  new 
moons  and  sabbaths,  but  also  of  the  "  spreading  forth 
of  hands"  and  "many  prayers."  The  last  two 
phrases,  which  both  point  to  the  same  thing,  bear 
witness  to  the  existence  of  a  service  of  prayer 
distinct  from  sacrifices.  Further,  another  example 
of  divine  worship  during  which  prayer  instead  of 
sacrifice  was  the  most  prominent  feature  was  the 
gathering  together  of  the  people  on  fast-days.  These 
gatherings  were  in  existence  in  pre-Exilic  days,  and 
they  were  not  necessarily  held  in  the  proximity  of 
the  altar ;  indeed,  it  seems  clear  that  sometimes 
there  was  no  sacrifice  at  all,  and  that  the  worship 
consisted  solely  of  prayers  together  with  informal 
confession  of  sins.  These  assemblies  for  prayer  on 
fast-days  "  exercised  a  great  influence  in  moulding 
the  form  of  the  later  worship  of  the  synagogue.  The 
description  of  the  accustomed  ceremonial  at  these 
gatherings  on  fast-days  which  we  possess  belongs, 
it  is  true,  to  later  times ;  the  Mishnah  depicts  this 
ceremonial  as  it  existed  in  the  Tannaitic  period  {i.e. 
roughly  A.D.  I -200),  but  most  of  the  forms  then  in 
use — and  just  the  more  important  ones — agree  with 
what  we  read  in  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocryphal 
books  regarding  this ;  so  that  there  can  be  little 
doubt  as  to  the  antiquity  of  the  ceremonies  described 
in  the  Mishnah  as  taking  place  on  the  fast-days."  ^ 
But,  as  Elbogen  goes  on  to  say,  these  gatherings 
were  in  no  sense  of  regular  occurrence,  they  were 
spasmodic  and  rare,  and  they  formed  no  pattern  of 
^  Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  235. 


NON-SACRIFICIAL  ELEMENTS  153 

daily  worship  such  as  belongs  to  the  synagogue. 
Most  authorities  are  agreed  that  the  beginnings  of 
the  regular  daily  gatherings  of  the  synagogue  are  to 
be  sought  during  the  Babylonian  Exile  ;  not  that 
the  non-sacrificial  elements  in  the  Temple  worship 
were  without  influence  on  the  character  of  these 
gatherings — quite  the  contrary  ;  but  during  the  Exile 
the  only  thing  that  could  take  the  place  of  the  daily 
sacrificial  services  of  the  Temple  was  the  meeting 
together  of  the  people  for  prayer,  etc.,  at  the  corre- 
sponding times,  morning  and  evening,  at  which  the 
Temple  services  had  been  held.  During  the  Exile 
the  national  consciousness,  the  nation's  ideals,  aspira- 
tions, and  hopes,  were  conserved  and  fostered  by  the 
daily  assembling  of  the  people-  in  order  that  they 
might  worship  and  pray  to  the  God  of  their  fathers, 
and  confess  before  Him  the  national  sins  and  short- 
comings for  which  they  were  being  justly  punished, 
and  that  they  might  hear  the  reading  and  expla- 
nation of  their  Law  which  had  been  handed  down,  in 
one  form  or  another,  for  so  many  generations.  It  is  in 
these  daily  gatherings  during  the  Exile  that  we  must 
see  the  pattern  which  was  followed  as,  by  degrees,  the 
settled  institution  of  the  synagogue  came  into  being. 
The  chief  elements  contained  in  that  pattern  were 
prayer,  confession,  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
the  explanation  of  the  latter.  On  the  return  from 
the  Captivity  these  elements  constituted  an  important 
part  in  the  worship  of  the  people  even  after  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  ;  the  books  of  Deutero- 
Isaiah,  Ezra-Nehemiah,  Haggai,  and  Zechariah  show 
this  clearly  enough,  and  we  have  also  the  evidence 
of  the  Mishnah.  In  this  latter  we  learn  that  the 
offering  up  of  the  daily  morning  sacrifice  was  sus- 
pended while  the  ministering  priests  went  in  a  body 
to  the  "  Hall  of  hewn  stone"  {Lishkath  ha-gazitJi)  for 
a  service  of  prayer  {Tamid  v.  1-3).  We  learn  also 
that  the  important  element  of  reading  the  Scriptures 


154  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

centred  in  portions  from  the  Pentateuch,  and,  above 
all,  in  the  reading  of  the  Shema!'  and  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments ;  indeed,  so  important  was  this  part  of 
the  Liturgy  considered  to  be  that  it  soon  came  to  be 
introduced  by  a  formal  thanksgiving  for  the  divine 
revelation,  of  which  it  constituted  a  part ;  it  was  also 
followed  by  a  declaration  of  the  hope  that  the  revela- 
tion which  had  been  accorded  to  the  nation's  fore- 
fathers might  be  continued  to  the  congregation  of 
Israel.  This  was  followed  by  a  prayer  that  God 
would  accept  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar ;  then  came 
the  priestly  blessing.^  This  is  all  part  of  the  Temple 
Liturgy  and  shows  how  important  the  non-sacri- 
ficial elements  had  become.  The  Mishnic  tractate 
Megillah,  which,  like  Tainid^  reflects  the  conditions 
as  they  were,  at  any  rate,  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  gives  as  the  main  parts  of  the  syna- 
gogue Liturgy  :  prayer  (the  Skemoneh  'EsreJi),  the 
Shema\  the  Torah  lesson,  the  lesson  from  the 
Prophets,  explanation  of  Scripture,  and  the  priestly 
blessing  {Megillah  iv.);  this,  with  slightly  more 
detail,  corresponds  closely  with  the  evidence  of 
Tamid.  In  addition  to  this,  we  know  from  various 
sources  about  the  use  of  Psalms  both  in  the  Temple 
and  in  the  synagogue ;  ^  this  constituted  the  praise 
portion  of  the  service. 

While,  then,  it  is  not  possible  to  trace  out  in  detail 
the  development  of  these  elements  of  worship,  we 
may  regard  it  as  certain  that,  even  before  the  Macca- 
baean  era,  the  Temple  worship  included,  apart  from 
the  sacrifices :  prayer,  confession,  reading  and  expla- 
nation of  Scripture,  the  Shema:  and  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments being  accorded  special  prominence,  and 
Psalms.  These  are  the  elements,  belonging  to  the 
non-sacrificial  part  of  the  Temple  worship  and  prac- 

^  cp.  Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  236. 

*  e.g.  Tamid  vii.  4.  See  for  further  details,  Oesterley,  The 
jRsalms  m  the  Jewish  Church,  pp.  110-128  (1910). 


THE  DAILY   MORNING  SERVICE         155 

tised  daily,  which  constitute  the  foundation  of  the 
daily  worship  of  the  synagogue  ;  out  of  them  and 
around  them  many  developments  have  arisen  in  the 
course  of  ages,  but,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next 
section,  they  stand  out  (with  one  exception)  as 
clearly  as  ever  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy  of  the  present 
day. 

IV 

THE   STRUCTURE   OF   THE   DAILY   MORNING 
SERVICE 

The  daily  morning  service,  called  Shacharith,  con- 
tains the  groundwork  of  the  regular  services  of  the 
synagogue  ;  there  are  certain  variations  in  the  after- 
noon {Mincha/i)  and  evening  {Ma^arib)  services,  as  well 
as  the  additions  on  those  for  Sabbaths,  New  Moons, 
and  festivals  ;  but  SJiacharith  may  be  regarded  as  the 
basis.  Its  main  divisions  are  as  follows:  (i)  Intro- 
ductory, or  preparatory  portion  ;  (2)  the  Zemiroth 
("Psalms");    (3)  the  5//^;;/^'    C' Hear    [O    Israel]"); 

(4)  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  ("Eighteen  [Benedictions]  ")  ; 

(5)  the  TacJianunim  ("Supplications");  (6)  Keriath 
ha-Torah  ("The  Reading  of  the  Law");  (7)  con- 
cluding portion.  A  general  outline-analysis  of  the 
contents  of  each  of  these  divisions  will  be  the  best 
means  of  giving  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  structure  of 
,the  whole  service. 

(i)  Introductory,  or  preparatory  portion. 
id)  Prayer  on  entering  the  synagogue,  {b)  The 
canticles  Yigdal  and  'Adon  'Olant.  (c)  The  Morning 
Benedictions,  (d)  Supplications,  (e)  Scriptural  and 
Rabbinical  passages  dealing  with  the  subject  of 
sacrifices.  (/)  l^he  putting  on  of  the  Tallith  and 
Tephillin. 

(2)  Praise  portion,  {d)  Songs  of  praise:  (i) 
Opening  Benediction,  Baruk  shedmar  ;  (ii)  i  Chron. 
xvi.    Z-^^     (=  Ps.     cv.),     Ps.     xcvi. ;     (iii)     Hymn 


156  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

of  praise  composed  of  extracts  from  the  Psalms,  {b) 
Psalm  c.  {c)  Hymn  of  praise  composed  of  Scriptural 
extracts.  \d)  Pss.  cxlv.-cl.  {e)  Passages  of  praise: 
(i)  I  Chron.  xxix.  10-13;  (ii)  Neh.  ix.  6-1 1;  (iii) 
Ex.  xiv.  30-xv.  18;  (iv)  concluding  Benediction, 
Yishtabbach  Shimeka.     Half  of  the  Kaddish. 

(3)  The  Shema*.  {a)  Introductory  Benedictions : 
(i)  Yotzer;  in)' Ahabah.  {b)  The  Shema'.  {c)  Con- 
cluding Benediction  :  Geullah. 

(4)  The  Shemoneh  'Esreh  :  The  Eighteen 
(Nineteen)  Benedictions. 

(5)  The  Tachanun.  {a)  Psalm  vi.  {b)  Vehu 
Rackiim  and  "Lord  God  of  Israel"  (said  only  on 
Mondays  and  Thursdays),    {c)  "O  Guardian  of  Israel." 

(6)  The  Reading  of  the  Law  (on  Mondays  and 
Thursdays),  {a)  The  opening  of  the  Ark  and  taking 
out  of  the  Scroll  of  the  Law.  {Jj)  The  calling  out  of 
three  persons  for  the  reading  of  the  Law.  {c)  The 
reading  of  the  Law.  {d)  The  elevation  of  the  Scroll. 
{e)  The  Scroll  is  returned  to  the  Ark.  (/)  Pss.  xxiv., 
cxlv.,  XX.  {g)  "  And  a  redeemer  shall  come  to  Zion," 
followed  by  Kedushah  and  two  prayers.  Kaddish, 
followed  by  the  ^Alenu  Prayer. 

(7)  Concluding  portion,  {a)  Hymn  of  Glory. 
{b)  The  Psalm  for  the  day.  ic)  The  Prayer  for  Sus- 
tenance, {d)  The  Ten  Commandments,  ie)  The 
"Thirteen  Principles"  of  Faith.  (/)  The  'Akedah 
(Gen.  xxii.  1-19)  and  "the  Manna"  (Ex.  xvi.  4-36). 

Of  these  seven  divisions  the  last  is  not  an  essential 
part  of  the  service  ;  a  few  words  of  comment  on  them 
may  be  offered  here,  but  the  contents  of  the  other 
divisions  will  be  dealt  with  a  little  more  fully  in 
separate  sections. 

The  introductory  portion.  The  whole  of 
this  portion  was  originally  in  the  nature  of  a  private 
devotional  preparation  for  the  service  which  was  to 
follow ;  only  by  degrees  did  it  become  incorporated 
into  the  service  itself.     Though  some  parts  of  it  are 


THE  DAILY  MORNING  SERVICE         157 

ancient,  excepting  for  the  Biblical  passages  it  contains 
no  pre-Christian  material.  The  canticle  Yigdal^  so 
called  from  its  opening  word,  ''Magnified  be  the 
living  God,  and  praised,"  is  quite  late ;  it  belongs  to 
the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century  ;  its  contents  are 
based  on  what  is  called  the  Creed  of  Maimonides,  or 
the  Thirteen  Principles  of  Faith  (see  below,  pp.  160, 
288).  The  other  canticle,  'Adon  'Olam  ("  Lord  of 
the  world "),  is  a  sacred  poem  belonging  to  the 
eleventh  century ;  it  deals  specifically  with  the 
doctrine  of  God ;  originally  it  was  evidently  an 
evening  prayer,  as  is  suggested  by  the  words :  "  Into 
His  hand  I  commend  my  spirit,  when  I  sleep  and 
when  I  wake."  The  Morning  Benedictions  which 
follow  are  five  in  number,  and  conclude  with  the 
words  of  the  priestly  Benediction  (Num.  vi.  24-26)  ; 
in  them  the  worshipper  blesses  God  for  His  com- 
mandment concerning  the  washing  of  hands,  for  the 
creation  of  man  by  divine  wisdom,  for  the  Law,  for 
the  teaching  of  the  Law,  and  for  the  choice  of  Israel, 
the  people  of  the  Law,  from  among  the  nations  of  the 
world.  These  are  followed  by  a  number  of  quite 
short  Benedictions  which  begin  with  :  "  Blessed  art 
Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  Universe." 
Among  the  Supplications,  which  come  next,  one  has 
a  particular  interest  because  it  corresponds  in  content, 
and  in  part  verbally,  with  the  three  first  sentences  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer ;  it  runs  thus  : 

"  Our  Father,  which  art  in  Heaven,^  show  mercy  towards  us 
for  Thy  great  Name's  sake  whereby  we  are  called  ;  ^  and 
fulfil  unto  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  that  which  hath  been  written, 
At  that  time  will  I  bring  you  in,  and  at  that  time  will  I  gather 
you  ..." 

^  cp.  Pirke  Aboth^  v.  23  :  "  Be  strong  as  a  lion  to  do  the  will 
of  thy  Father  which  is  in  Heaven." 

^  ///.  "Thy  great  Name  which  is  called  over  us";  the 
phrase  comes  from  Deut.  xxviii.  10 ;  according  to  the  Old 
Testament  idea,  the  people  belonged  to  him  whose  name  was 
called  over  them. 


158  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

This  last  sentence  refers  to  the  coming  of  the 
Kingdom,  and  the  second  sentence  is  an  impHcit 
hallowing  of  God's  Name  ;  ^  so  that  one  can  say  with 
truth  that  the  content  of  the  first  three  clauses  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  is  contained  in  this  supplication.^  In 
the  first  two  supplications  also  there  are  phrases 
strongly  reminiscent  of  other  clauses  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  viz.  :  "  O  lead  us  not  into  the  power  of  sin,  or 
of  transgression  or  iniquity,  or  of  temptation,  or  of 
scorn."  And  again  :  "  May  it  be  Thy  will,  O  Lord  my 
God,  and  God  of  my  fathers,  to  deliver  me  this  day, 
and  every  day,  from  arrogant  men  and  from 
arrogance  .  .  .  and  from  any  mishap,  and  from  the 
adversary  that  destroyeth." 

The  Scriptural  (Num.  xxviii,  i-8  ;  Lev.  i.  1 1  ;  on 
Sabbaths  Num.  xxviii.  9,  10  is  also  added)  and 
Rabbinical  passages  which  now  follow  refer  to  the 
sacrifices  ;  they  are  intended  to  emphasise  the  truth 
that  the  prayers  of  the  synagogue  are  spiritual 
sacrifices  and  correspond  to  the  sacrificial  system  of 
the  Temple.  Finally,  the  putting  on  of  the  Tephillin, 
or  Phylacteries,  is  done  in  accordance  with  the 
commands  given  in  Ex.  xiii.  i-io;  11-16;  Deut.  vi. 
4-9;  xi.  13-2 1.3 

The  concluding  portion.  This  portion  is  not, 
strictly  speaking,  part  of  the  service  ;  ^  and  it  varies 
considerably  in  different  Rites.  Some  elements  of 
this  part  of  the  service  are,  however,  very  ancient. 
Of  special  interest  is  the  Psalm  for  the  day  ;  this  is  a 

^  In  the  preceding  supplication  occur  the  words  :  "  Sanctify 
Thy  Name  upon  them  that  sanctify  it,  yea,  sanctify  Thy  Name 
throughout  Thy  world." 

2  cp.  also  the  words  in  one  of  the  Benedictions  in  the  evening 
service  :  "  Our  God,  which  art  in  Heaven,  assert  the  unity  of 
Thy  Name,  and  establish  Thy  Kingdom  continually,  and  reign 
over  us  for  ever  and  ever." 

3  On  the  wearing  of  the  Tephillin  see  R IVS,  pp.  447  ff. 

*  It  is  left  to  the  devout  to  use  part  or  all  privately,  according 
to  the  desire  of  the  individual  worshipper. 


THE  DAILY  MORNING   SERVICE         159 

pre-Christian  element.  In  the  Mishnah(Z'<^;///^vii.  4), 
quoted  in  the  Prayer  Book,  it  is  said  :  "  These  were 
the  Psalms  which  the  Levites  used  to  recite  in  the 
Temple :  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  they  used  to 
recite  The  earth  is  the  Lord's  (Ps.  xxiv.) ;  on  the 
second  day  Great  is  the  Lord  (Ps.  xlviii.) ;  on  the 
third  day  God  standeth  in  the  congregation  of  the 
mighty  (Ps.  Ixxxii.) ;  on  the  fourth  day  God  of 
vengeance  (Ps.  xciv.)  ;  on  the  fifth  day  Exult  aloud  unto 
God  our  strength  (Ps.  Ixxxi.)  ;  on  the  sixth  day  The 
L^ord  reigyietJi  (Ps.  xciii.) ;  on  the  Sabbath  A  Psalm^  a 
song  for  the  Sabbath  day  (Ps.  xcii.).  It  is  the  Psalm 
and  song  also  for  the  hereafter,  for  the  day  which  will 
be  wholly  a  Sabbath  and  a  rest  for  life  everlasting." 
As  is  well  known,  in  the  Septuagint  five  of  these 
chosen  Psalms  have  inscriptions  referring  them  to  the 
days  of  the  week  ;  this  is,  however,  not  the  case  with 
the  Psalms  for  the  third  and  fifth  days.  Another 
very  ancient  element  in  this  part  of  the  service  is  the 
recitation  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  for,  according 
to  Tamidv.  i,  these  were  read  daily  in  the  Temple. 

There  follow  then  some  responses  and  the  "  Prayer 
for  Sustenance,"  which  is  based  upon  Scriptural 
texts.  The  presence  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  after 
this  prayer,  is  interesting.  As  we  have  just  seen,  the 
Decalogue  was  used  daily  in  the  Temple  Liturgy, 
where  it  was  read  before  the  Shenia'  (Mishnah, 
Tamid  v.  i  ;  Bab.  Talm.  Berakhoth  lib,  12a)  ;  but  it 
was  excluded  from  the  service  on  account  of  the 
attitude  adopted  by  certain  sectaries  who  maintained 
that  only  the  Decalogue,  not  the  rest  of  the  Law,  had 
been  revealed  by  God  to  Moses.  When  this  exclusion 
took  place  is  not  absolutely  certain,  but  in  all 
probability  it  was  during  the  first  century  A.D. 
Though    printed    in    the    Daily    Prayer    Book,^    the 

^  Some  twenty  years  ago  the  late  Chief  Rabbi  H.  Adler 
allowed  the  Decalogue  to  be  read  in  English  on  Sabbaths 
in  the  synagogues  under  his  jurisdiction. 


i6o  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

Decalogue  is  not  now  part  of  the  official  service,  and 
is  only  used  privately  by  those  who  care  to  do  so. 

The  Decalogue  is  followed  by  "  The  Thirteen 
Principles  of  Faith,"  of  which  the  canticle  Yigdal, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  a  poetical  version.  These 
"Principles"  were  compiled  from  Maimonides' ^ 
commentary  on  the  Mishnah  ;  they  are  also  known 
as  the  "  Creed  of  Maimonides."  They  form  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  formal  creed  which  the  Jews 
possess,  but  are  not  binding  on  the  Jews,  nor  are 
they  universally  accepted.  "  Maimonides  must  indeed 
have  filled  up  a  great  gap  in  Jewish  theology,  a  gap, 
moreover,  the  existence  of  which  was  very  generally 
perceived.  A  century  had  hardly  elapsed  before  the 
Thirteen  Articles  had  become  a  theme  for  the  poets 
of  the  synagogue.  And  almost  every  country  where 
Jews  lived  can  show  a  poem  or  prayer  founded  on 
these  articles."  ^  The  final  conclusion  of  the  service 
then  follows  with  the  reading  of  the  'Akedak,  or 
"  Binding"  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  1-19),  and  the  passage 
about  the  giving  of  the  Manna  (Ex.  xvi.  4-36). 
Dr.  Abrahams  explains  the  raison  d'etre  of  these 
passages  here  thus :  "  The  'Akedah  is  not  merely  an 
eternal  plea  to  man  for  readiness  to  undergo  all  trials 
to  which  he  may  be  subjected,  but  it  also  established 
a  human  plea  for  divine  mercy.  The  obedience  of 
Abraham  was  from  two  sides  an  inspiration  to  his 
descendants  ;  it  inspired  self-sacrifice  and  self- 
confidence.  .  .  .  The  recital  of  the  chapter  on  the 
Manna  implies  firm  belief  in  the  providential  care  of 
the  Father.  .  .  .  When  the  daily  round  of  work  is 
begun  in  a  spirit  of  faith,  there  will  be  no  lack  of 
sustenance."  ^ 

'  He  lived  1135-1204.     (See  pp.  34  ff.) 

2  Schechter,  Studies  in  Judaism  {Y'wsi  Series),  pp.  199^(1896). 

^  op.  cit.  p.  cii. 


THE   ZEMIROTH  i6i 

V 

THE   ZEMIROTH 

It  is  a  Jewish  liturgical  principle  that  the  making 
of  petitions  to  Almighty  God  must  be  preceded  by 
offering  Him  praise.  Hence  the  praises  at  the 
opening  of  the  service  proper.  Zemiroth  is  the 
Hebrew  for  "  Psalms."^  We  have  plenty  of  evidence 
as  to  the  use  of  Psalms  in  the  Temple  Liturgy  ;  a 
number  of  them  were  sung  by  the  Levites  during  the 
offering  of  the  sacrifices  ;  we  are  specifically  told  also 
that  every  morning,  immediately  after  the  sacrifices 
had  been  offered,  the  Levites  sang  Ps.  cv.  1-15,^  and 
every  evening  Ps.  xcvi.  In  the  synagogue  these  are 
joined  together  and  said  every  morning  as  an 
introduction  to  the  praise  portion  of  the  service. 
But,  as  so  often  occurs  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy, 
important  parts  of  the  service  are  enclosed  within  a 
framework  of  Benedictions ;  this  is  so,  too,  in  the 
present  case  ;  a  Benediction  is  said  before  and  after 
the  recitation  of  the  Psalms.  The  opening  one  is 
called,  from  the  words  with  which  it  begins,  Baj'ick 
sliedmar  ("  Blessed  be  He  who  spake ") ;  this  is  a 
composite  piece,  the  second  part  of  which  leads  over 
to  the  Psalms  of  praise  :  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord 
our  God  .  .  .  praised  by  the  mouth  of  Thy 
people.  .  .  ."  The  closing  Benediction,  also  called 
after  its  opening  words,  is  known  as  Yislitabbach 
Shimeka,  "  Praised  be  Thy  Name."  It  is  after  the 
former  Benediction  that  Pss.  cv.  1-15  and  xcvi.  are 
said  ;  these  are  followed  by  a  number  of  extracts  from 
the  Bible,  mainly  from  the  Psalms,  strung  into  two 

1  cp.  the  titles  of  many  of  the  Psalms,  Mizmor  le-David^  a 
Psalm  of  David  ;  the  word  Mizmor  is  from  the  same  root. 
Zeiniroth  is  also  a  technical  term  for  religious  poems,  usually 
sung  ;  e.g.  the  Zemiroth  sung  at  table  on  the  Sabbath. 

2  This  occurs  also,  with  slight  variations,  in  i  Chron.  xvi. 
8-36,  which  is  the  form  adopted  in  the  Liturgy. 

M 


i62  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

hymns  of  praise,  with  Ps.  c.  in  the  centre.  The 
second  of  these  hymns  of  praise  is  composed  wholly 
of  verses  containing  the  Name  of  God.  Ps.  c.  is  in 
all  probability  a  remnant  here  of  the  old  Temple 
Liturgy. 

Now  the  opening  Benediction,  Pss.  cv.  i-cS,  xcvi., 
and  the  hymns  of  praise  with  Ps.  c.  in  the  centre,  all 
form  part  of  the  framework  around  the  real  centre  of 
the  praise  portion  of  the  service  ;  the  kernel  of  the 
whole  is  formed  by  Pss.  cxlv.-cl.;  ^  these  are  the  real 
ZcinirotJi.  The  first  actual  mention  of  these  Psalms 
as  being  part  of  the  daily  service  of  the  Liturgy  is  by 
Rabbi  Jose  ben  Chalaphta,  who  lived  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  A.D.  ;  ^  but  it  is  very  probable 
that  they  formed  part  of  the  Temple  Liturgy.  In  the 
ancient  Prayer  Books  these  Psalms  are  immediately 
followed  by  the  concluding  Benediction,  YisJitabbacJi 
SJiimcka,  but  in  course  of  time  the  three  Biblical 
passages,  i  Chron.  xxix.  10-13  (David's  Song  of 
Thanksgiving);  Neh.  ix.  6-1 1  (A  Song  of  Praise)  ; 
and  Ex.  xiv.  30-xv.  18  (The  Song  of  Moses),  came 
to  be  inserted.  These  three  passages  and  the  final 
Benediction  form  the  rest  of  the  framework  around 
the  ZeiJiiroth  proper. 

At  the  end  of  this  part  of  the  service  half  of  the 
Kaddish  is  said  ;  on  this  see  below,  ^  IX. 


VI 

TH-E   SHEMA' 

We  have  already  seen  (p.  154)  that  this  part  of  the 
service,  concentrating  the  mind  as  it  does  upon  the 
cardinal  tenet  of  the  Jewish  faith — belief  in  one  God — 
was  considered  so  important  that  in  the  worship  of  the 
Temple  it  was  introduced  by  a  formal  thanksgiving 

^  Strictly  speaking,  it  begins  at  Ps.  cxlv.  15. 

2  Tractate  Sopherim  xvii.  11  (Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  82). 


THE   SHEMA'  163 

for  the  divine  revelation,  and  followed  by  the  prayer 
that  this  revelation  should  be  continued  to  Israel. 
Something  similar  finds  its  place  up  to  the  present 
day  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy.  The  Sheina''  is  introduced 
by  various  Benedictions  or  prayers,  the  two  central 
ones  being  known  respectively  as  Yotzer  ("  Creator  ") 
and  AhabaJi  ("Love")  from  the  most  important  of 
their  opening  words.  It  is  followed  by  a  Benediction 
called  GetillaJi  ("  Redemption  "),  because  it  refers  to 
the  Almighty  as  the  Redeemer  oi  Israel.  It  is 
probable  that,  in  some  form,  all  these  three  existed  in 
the  Temple  Liturgy.  This  is  certainly  true  of  the 
Ahabah^  without  doubt  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
prayers  in  any  Liturgy  ;  it  is  as  follows  : 

"  With  abounding  love  hast  Thou  loved  us,  O  Lord  our  God. 
With  great  and  overflowing  pity  hast  Thou  had  pity  upon  us.  O 
our  Father,  our  King,  for  our  fathers'  sake  who  trusted  in  Thee, 
and  whom  Thou  didst  teach  the  statutes  of  life,  be  gracious  also 
unto  us,  and  teach  us.  O  our  Father,  merciful  Father,  ever  com- 
passionate, have  mercy  upon  us,  and  put  into  our  hearts  to 
discern  and  to  understand  ;  to  hear,  to  learn,  and  to  teach  ;  to 
observe  and  do  and  fulfil  in  love  all  the  words  of  instruction  in 
Thy  Law.  Enlighten  our  eyes  in  Thy  Law,  and  let  our  hearts 
cleave  to  Thy  commandments  ;  and  unite  our  hearts  to  love 
and  to  fear  Thy  Name,  that  we  may  never  be  put  to  shame. 
For  in  Thy  holy,  great,  and  revered  Name  have  we  trusted  ;  so 
shall  we  rejoice  and  be  glad  in  Thy  salvation.  O  bring  us  in 
peace  from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth,  and  make  us  go 
upright  to  our  land  ;  for  Thou,  O  God,  dost  work  salvation. 
And  us  hast  Thou  chosen  from  all  peoples  and  tongues,  and  hast 
brought  us  near  to  Thy  great  Name  for  ever  in  faithfulness, 
that  we  might  in  love  give  thanks  to  Thee,  and  proclaim  Thy 
unity.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  in  love  dost  choose  Thy 
people  Israel." 

The  actual  Shema\  which  receives  its  name  from 
the  opening  word  "  Hear,"  consists  of  the  three 
Biblical  passages,  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  beginning :  ^'  Hear, 
O  Israel;  the  Lord  our  God,  the  Lord  is  One"; 
Deut.  xi.  13-21  ;  and  Num.  xv^  37—41.  This  was 
part  of  the  Temple  service  which,  as  the  Mishnah 
\Tamid   v.    i)    tells    us,    was    taken    over    by    the 

M  2 


i64  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

synagogue.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  words 
which  immediately  follow  after  the  saying  of  the 
S/iema' — "Blessed  be  His  Name,  whose  glorious 
Kingdom  is  for  ever  and  ever" — were  always  said  in 
the  Temple  when  the  Holy  Name,  Jehovah,  was 
uttered. 


VII 

THE   SHEMONEH   *ESREH 

We  come  now  to  what  is  the  most  interesting  and, 
in  many  respects,  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Jewish  Liturgy.  But  before  coming  to  speak  in  some 
detail  about  this  venerable  prayer  it  will  be  well  to 
say  a  word  or  two  as  to  its  date  ;  not  that  this  can  be 
fixed  with  certainty,  but  there  are  some  indications 
which  point  to  a  high  antiquity,  at  any  rate,  of  parts 
of  it,  though  in  its  present  form  it  belongs  to  about 
A.D.  lOO.  Nowhere  in  the  canonical  Scriptures,  it  is 
true,  is  there  any  sign  that  it  was  known  to  any  of 
the  writers.  But  in  the  Wisdom  of  Ben-Sira  there  is 
a  passage  which  demands  some  attention,  namely,  the 
Psalm  which,  in  the  Hebrew  Version,  comes  after 
li.  12.  The  parallelisms  between  this  passage  and  the 
Shemoneh  'Esreh  are  partly  to  be  found  in  identity 
of  expression,  and  partly  in  similarity  of  thought. 
These  are  as  follows ;  identical  expressions  in  the 
Hebrew  of  each  are  printed  in  italics  : 

Ben-Sira  Shem.  'Es. 

Verse  Section 

2.  Give  thanks  unto  the  God        3.  Holy    ones    praise    Thee 
of  praises.  every  day. 

5.  Give  thanks  unto  f/te  Re-        7.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord, 

deemer  of  Israel.  the  Redeemer  of  Israel. 

6.  Give  thanks  unto  Him  l/tal      10.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord, 

gathereth  the  outcasts  of  that  gatherest  the  out- 

Israel,  casts     of    Thy     people 

Isr-ael. 


THE  SHEMONEH   'ESREH 


165 


Ben-Sira 

Verse 

7.  Give  thanks  unto  Him  that 
buildeth  His  City  and 
His  Sanctuary. 


8.  Give  thanks  unto  Him 
that  caiiseth  a  horn  to 
flourish  for  the  house  of 
David. 

10.  Give     thanks     unto     the 

Shield  of  Abraham . 

11.  Give  thanks  unto  the  Rock 

of  Isaac, 

12.  Give     thanks     unto     the 

Mighty  One  of  facob. 

13.  Give  thanks  unto  Him  that 

hath  chosen  Zion. 


14.  Give  thanks  unto  the  King 
of  the  kings  of  kings. 


Shem.  'Es. 

Section 

14.  Do    Thou    dwell    in    the 

midst  of  Jerusalem  Thy 
City.  .  .  .  And  build  it 
an  everlasting  building 
speedily  in  our  days» 
Blessed  art  Thou,  O 
Lord,  that  biiildest  Jeru- 
salem. 

15.  Do  Thou  cause  the  branch 

of  David  speedily  to 
flourish,  And  do  Thou 
exalt  his  horft  by  Thy 
salvation. 
I.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord, 
the  Shield  of  Abraham. 
18.  .  .  .  the /?^^/^  of  our  lives. 

I.  .  .  .  the  God  of  facob,  the 
great  God,  mighty  and 
revered. 

17.  May  our  eyes  behold  Thy 
return  to  Zio7i.  .  .  . 
Blessed  art  Thou,  O 
Lord,  that  restoresfThy 
Shekinah  to  Zion. 

II.  Reign  Thou  over  us.  .  .  . 
Blessed  art  Thou,  O 
Lord  and  Kin^. 


The  title  of  "  King  "  is  applied  to  God  four  times 
in  addition  to  this  one.  Identical  expressions  grouped 
together  in  this  way  in  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  and  in 
this  Psalm  can  scarcely  be  fortuitous.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  Psalm  is  quite  short,  and  though 
the  order  in  which  these  expressions  occur  differs  in 
the  two  pieces,  yet  when  they  are  respectively  found 
within  a  restricted  compass  the  supposition  of  a  con- 
nexion of  some  sort  between  the  two  is  justified. 
The  Wisdom  of  Ben-Sira  belongs  approximately  to 
the  year  175  B.C.,  so  that  if  we  could  trace  a  real 
relationship    between  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  and    this 


i66  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Psalm,  there  would  presumably  be  some  grounds  for 
dating  the  origin  of  the  former  somewhere  about  the 
beginning  of  the  second  pre-Christian  century.  The 
subject  is,  however,  complicated  by  the  following 
considerations  :  {a)  Some  authorities  hold  this  Psalm 
to  be  later  than  the  rest  of  Ben-Sira's  book,  {h)  The 
conditions  presupposed  in  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  (i.e. 
Pharisaic)  are  inadmissible  in  175  B.C.  (c)  With  one 
exception,  the  identical  expressions  referred  to  above 
occur  in  the  admittedly  later  Benedictions  of  the 
Shemoneh  'Esreh  (viz.  7, 10,  14,  15).  These  objections 
are  weighty,  though  not  insuperable.  In  some  form 
or  other  the  prayer  was  certainly  existing  in  175  B.C. 
and  doubtless  for  some  time  before  this  date. 

Two  recensions  of  this  prayer  are  in  efecistence :  the 
Babylonian  and  the  Palestinian  ;  from  these  we  are 
enabled  to  see  that  it  was  originally  shorter  than  it 
appears  in  its  present  form  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy. 

The  following  is  an  English  version  of  the  Shemoneh 
'Esreh  translated  from  the  Babylonian  recension 
published  by  Dalman.^  This  is  the  longer  form,  and 
therefore  includes  the  later  additions,  but  it  is  the 
form  as  now  found  in  the  Jewish  Liturgy.  Dalman 
believes  that  this  recension  is  originally  Palestinian, 
but  that  Babylon  was  the  centre  from  which  later  on 
it  spread  and  became  the  universally  accepted  form. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  originally 
this  prayer  was  composed  on  the  pattern  of  early 
Hebrew  poetry,  i.e.  each  paragraph  consisted  of 
two  lines  in  rhythmic  measure  ;  then  came  the  Bene- 
diction. 

The  Shemoneh  'Esreh  is  introduced  by  the  words 
from  Ps.  li.  15  (E.V.)  : 

"  O  Lord,  open  Thou  my  lips, 
And  my  mouth  shall  show  forth  Thy  praise." 

^  Die  Worte  Jesu^  pp.  301-304  (1898). 


THE   SHEMONEH    'ESREH  167 

BENEDICTION    I^ 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  and  the  God  of  our 
fathers, 

The  God  of  Abraham,  the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of 
facoh. 

2[God  the  Great  One,  the  Mighty  One,  and  the 
Revered  One],  God  Most  High,  [Who  dost  grant 
loving^  mercies],  and  dost  possess  all  things, 
[Who  dost  remember  the  pious  deeds  of  the 
fathers,  and  showest  compassion  upon  their 
children,  and  wilt  bring  a  redeemer  to  their 
children's  children  for  His  Name's  sake,  in  love  ; 
Merciful  King,  Saviour,  Helper,  and  Shield]. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  the  Shield  of  Abraham. 

BENEDICTION    II 

Thou  art  mighty  for  ever,  0  Lord, 

[O  Thou  that  quickenest  the  dead.  Thou  art  mighty 
to  save].  That  causest  the  wind  to  blow,  and  the 
rain  to  descend. 

Thou  sustainest  the  living  [with  mercy],  Thou 
quickenest  the  dead. 

[With  great  mercies  Thou  dost  heal  the  sick,  dost 
help  the  weak,  dost  support  the  fallen,  dost  loose 
the  bound,  and  dost  keep  faith  with  them  that 
sleep  in  the  dust.  And  who  is  like  unto  Thee, 
Master  of  mighty  acts?  And  who  resembleth 
Thee,  that  killest  and  makest  alive,  and  causest 
salvation  to  spring  forth,  that  art  faithful  in 
quickening  the  dead  ?] 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  quickenest  the  dead. 

1  When  used  in  the  public  service  this  prayer  is  said  first  by 
the  worshippers  silently  ;  it  is  then  recited  aloud  by  the 
Precentor  or  Reader. 

2  Words  in  square  brackets  are  those  portions  which  are 
probably  later  additions,  according  to  Dalman  ;  we  are  not 
able  to  agree  with  him  in  every  case. 


i68  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

BENEDICTION    III 

Thou  art  holy,  and  holy  is  Thy  Name, 
And  holy  ones  praise  Thee  every  day. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  the  Holy  God. 

After  this  Benediction  follows  what  is  called  the 
Kedushah  ("  Sanctification  ")  ^  ;  this  is  not  an  original 
part  of  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  and  when  it  first  came  to 
be  inserted  is  quite  unknown  ;  but  it  is  mentioned  in 
very  early  writings,*-^  and  its  presence  in  the  Jewish 
Liturgy  is  in  any  case  pre-Christian.  We  shall  have 
to  say  a  word  about  it  presently,  when  it  will  be  seen 
to  be  of  peculiar  interest  from  the  Christian  liturgical 
point  of  view. 

BENEDICTION    IV 

Thou  dost  favourably  grant  knowledge  unto  men, 

And  dost  teach  discernment  unto  men  ; 

Grant  us  from  Thee  knowledge,   and  understanding, 

and  discernment. 
Blessed  art  Thou  who  dost  graciously  grant  knowledge. 

BENEDICTION    V 

Cause  us  to  return,  our  Father,  unto  Thy  Law  ; 
And  draw  us  near,  our  King,  unto  Thy  service  ; 
And   bring  us   back   in   perfect    repentance    to    Thy 

presence. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  delightest  in  repentance. 

BENEDICTION    VI 

Forgive  us,  our  Father,  for  we  have  sinned  ; 
Pardon  us,  our  King,  for  we  have  transgressed. 
For  Thou  art  the  God  of  goodness,  Thou  dost  forgive. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  [Who  art  gracious],   Who 
dost  abundantly  forgive. 

^  The  earliest  direct  quotation  of  it  is  circa  A.D.  350;  see 
Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  62. 

2  See  Zunz,  Die  goUesdiensflichen  Vortrdgc  der  Judcfi, 
pp.  382,  395  (T892). 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  169 


BENEDICTION    VII 

Look  upon  our  affliction^  and  plead  our  cause,  and 

haste  to  redeem  us  ; 
For  thou  art  God,  [King],  Mighty  Redeemer. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  the  Redeemer  of  Lsrael. 

BENEDICTION    VIII 

Heal  us,  0  Lord  our  God,  and  we  shall  he  healed  ; 
[Save  us,  and  we  shall  be  saved].  Vouchsafe  [perfect] 

healing  to  all  our  wounds, 
For  Thou,  0  God,  art  a  merciful  Healer. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  healest  [the  sicknesses 

of  His  people]  Lsrael. 

BENEDICTION    IX 

Bless  us,  0  Lord  our  God,  in  all  the  work  of  our 
hands, 

And  bless  our  years, [and  give  dew  and  rain  upon  the 
face  of  the  earth],  and  satisfy  the  world  and  its 
fullness  with  Thy  goodness,  [and  give  plenty 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth  through  the  richness 
of  the  gifts  of  Thy  hands,  and  preserve  and 
prosper,  O  Lord  our  God,  this  year  with  every 
kind  of  produce,  (keeping)  from  it  every  kind  of 
destruction  and  want ;  and  grant  to  it  issue,  and 
hope,  and  plenty,  and  peace,  and  blessing,  as  in 
other  good  years]. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  blessest  the  years. 

BENEDICTION    X 

Sound  the  great  horn  for  our  freedom, 

And  lift  up  the  ensign  to  gather  all  our  exiles  from 

the  four  corners  of  the  earth  to  our  own  land. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  gatherest  [the  outcast  of 

Thy  people]  Israel. 


170  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

BENEDICTION    XI 

Restore  our  judges  as  in  former  times,  and  our 
counsellors  as  in  the  beginning, 

[And  put  away  from  us  grief  and  sighing],  and  do 
Thou  alone  reign  over  us  [in  mercy,  in  righteous- 
ness, and  in  judgement]. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  [and  King],  that  lovest 
[righteousness  and]  judgement. 

BENEDICTION    XII 

A  nd  for  slanderers  ^  let  there  he  no  hope, 

And  let  all  the  Minim  ^  be  destroyed  as  in  a  7noment ; 

And  the  k:ngdom  of  arrogance  do  Thou  uproot  and 

crush  [speedily  in  our  days]. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  [that  crushest  the  enemies, 

and]  that  humblest  the  arrogant. 

BENEDICTION    XIII 

Upon  the  righteous,  [and  upon  the  pious],  and  upon 

the  proselytes  of  righteousness 
[And  upon  the  remnant  of  Thy  people,  even  all  the 

house  of  Israel]  let  Thy  mercies  be  stirred,  0  Lord 

our  God  ; 
And  grant  a  good  reward  unto  all  that  trust  in  Thy 

name  [in  truth ;  and  set  our  portion  with  them 

for  ever  ;  let  us  not  be  ashamed,  for  in  Thy  Name 

have  we  trusted,  and  we  have  relied   upon  Thy 

salvation]. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  [the  Stay  and]  the  Trust  of 

the  righteous. 

^  D'^^TpVp  ;  but  in  the  marg.  and  in  two  MSS.  □n»?r>rp 
"  religious  renegade,"  or  the  like. 

2  "Heretics";  the  reference  is  possibly  to  Christians;  but 
some  eminent  Jewish  scholars  hold  that  the  term  refers  to 
Gnostics  and  not  to  Christians  ;  see  Joel,  Blicke  .  .  .,  i.  26,  29. 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  171 


BENEDICTION    XIV 


Do  Thou  dwell  in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem,  Thy  city 

[according  as  Thou  hast  said], 
And  build  it  an  everlasting  building  speedily  in  our 

days. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  buildest  Jerusalem. 


BENEDICTION    XV 


Do  Thou  cause  the  branch  of  David  speedily  to  flourish, 
And  do  Thou  exalt  h's  horn  by  Thy  salvation. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  causest  [the  horn  of] 
salvation  to  flourish. 


BENEDICTION  XVI 

Hear  our  voice,  0  Lord  our  God,  [spare  us]  and  have 

mercy  upon  us, 
And  accept  our  prayer  in  mercy  [and  favour]. 
[From  Thy  presence,  O  our  King,  turn  us  not  away 

empty],  for   Thou   hearest  the   prayer   of   every 

mouth. 
Blessed  art  Thou  that  hearkenest  unto  prayer. 

BENEDICTION    XVII 

Accept,  0  Lord  our  God,  Thy  people  Israel  [and  thei 

prayer], 
And  restore  the  service  to  the  oracle  of  Thy  House. 
[And  the  fire-offerings  of  Israel  and  their  prayer  and 

their  service  do   Thou   speedily   accept  in   love 

with  favour  ;  and  may  the  service  of  Thy  people 

Israel  be  ever  acceptable], 
And  may  our  eyes  behold  Thy  return  to  Zion  [in  mercy, 

as  of  yore]. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  restorest  [speedily]  Thy 

Shekhinah  unto  Zion. 


172  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

BENEDICTION    XVIII 

We  give  thanks  unto  Thee  [for  Thou  art  He],  0  Lord 
our  God,  and  the  God  of  our  fathers  ; 

[The  Rock  of  our  Hves,  and  the  Shield  of  our  salvation 
art  Thou  from  generation  to  generation.  We 
will  give  thanks  unto  Thee,  and  declare  Thy 
praise,]  for  our  lives  which  are  committed  into  Thy 
hand,  and  for  our  souls  which  are  in  Thy  charge  ; 

For  Thy  miracles,  and  for  Thy  wonders,  and  for  Thy 
benefits  at  all  times,  [at  evening,  and  morning, 
and  mid-day.  Thou  art  good,  for  Thy  loving- 
kindnesses  fail  not ;  Thou  art  merciful,  for  Thy 
mercies  cease  not.  For  all  the  living  praise  Thy 
great  Name ;  for  Thou  art  good.  Thou  Good 
God]. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord  ;  good  [and  beautiful]  it  is  to 
praise  Thee  [and  Thy  name  continually]. 

BENEDICTION    XIX 

Give  [goodly]  peace  and  blessing  [grace,  and  mercy, 
and  loving-kindnesses]  unto  us,  even  unto  Israel 
Thy  people. 

Bless  us  altogether,  0  Lord  our  God,  [in  the  light  of 
Thy  countenance ;  for  in  the  light  of  Thy 
countenance  Thou  hast  given  us,  O  Lord  our 
God,  the  Law,  and  life,  love  and  mercy, 
righteousness  and  peace,  blessing  and  loving- 
kindnesses]  ;  yea,  it  is  good  in  Thine  eyes  to  bless 
Thy  people  Israel  [with  abundance  of  strength 
and  peace]. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord,  that  hlessest  [Thy  people 
Israel]  with  peace.     Amen. 

As  already  pointed  out,  after  the  people  have  said 
the  Shemonch  'Esreh  privately  the  reader  repeats  it 
aloud  ;  during  this  repetition  in  ancient  days  men 
belonging  to  priestly  families  uttered  the  Blessing  of 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  173 

the  Priests  before  the  nineteenth  Benediction  ;  ^  this 
was  done  daily,  but  for  many  centuries  its  daily  use 
has  ceased,  and  it  is  only  said  on  festivals,  as  well  as 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  but  not  when  it  falls  on  the 
Sabbath.  The  Blessing  of  the  Priests  (Num.  vi.  24-26) 
was  an  important  ceremony  in  the  Temple  Liturgy  ;  it 
was  uttered  by  the  priests  every  morning  and  evening 
over  the  worshippers  at  the  bringing  of  the  whole 
burnt-offering.  This  is,  therefore,  another  element 
which  the  synagogue  has  taken  over  from  the 
Temple  Liturgy.  This  Blessing  is  not  now  neces- 
sarily said  by  priests ;  on  ordinary  occasions  the 
officiating  reader  utters  it.  It  is  not  said  if  a  con- 
gregation consists  of  less  than  ten  males,  aged 
thirteen  years  or  over.^ 

The  name  Shemoneh  'Esreh  (=  Eighteen  [Benedic- 
tions]), referring  especially  as  it  does  to  the  Bera- 
khoth  or  "  Blessings "  with  which  each  sentence 
concludes,  dates,  then,  in  its  present  form  from 
about  the  year  A.D.  100.  Before  that  time  it  con- 
sisted of  only  seventeen  Benedictions.^  The  addition 
of  the  eighteenth  was  due  to  Gamaliel  II.  (see  below). 
In  its  present  form,  howev^er,  the  prayer  consists  of 
nineteen  Benedictions  ;  this  is  because  in  the  Jewish 
Liturgy  the  Babylonian  recension  has  been  adopted, 
and  in  this  recension  what  in  the  Palestinian  recen- 
sion appears  as  a  single  Benediction  is  in  the  Baby- 
lonian recension  divided  into  two,  namely,  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth.  Another  name  which  is  very 
often  given  to  this  prayer  is  Tephillah  ( =  "  prayer  "), 
because  it  is  far  excellence  the  prayer  of  the  Jewish 
Liturgy.  Yet  another  name  by  which  it  is  commonly 
known  is  'Aniidah  (=   "standing"),  because   during 

^  In  the  Mishnah  {Sota  vii.  i)  this  Benediction  is  called 
Birkath  Cohanim  (  =  "  The  Blessing  of  the  Priests  "). 

2  Mishnah,  Megilla  iv.  4. 

2  EarHer  still  it  consisted  of  only  twelve,  in  all  probability 
while  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  its  earliest  form  it  was 
made  up  of  only  six  Benedictions  ;  see  below. 


174  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

its  recitation  the  congregation  stands,  whereas   they 
sit  during  most  of  the  preceding  part  of  the  service. 

Originally,  when  this  prayer  was  offered  up  in  the 
synagogue,  one  came  forth  from  the  congregation 
and  recited  it.  He  was  called  the  Sheliach  Zibbiir, 
"  the  messenger  of  the  congregation."  This  was  done 
in  order  to  emphasise  that  the  prayer  was  offered  by 
the  congregation.  The  Sheliach  Zihhur  was  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  congregation  ;  he  was  not  their 
representative  ;  he  did  not  occupy  a  position  analo- 
gous to  that  of  a  priest  ;  it  was  simply  that  his  voice 
was  the  voice  of  the  people.  Jewish  worship  was 
essentially  congregational.  And  while  as  a  rule 
(until  much  later  times,  and  for  convenience'  sake) 
the  congregation  had  their  mouthpiece,  they  did  with 
their  own  voice  collectively  utter  certain  responses 
belonging  to  this  prayer ;  the  most  important  of 
these  was  the  Amen  at  the  end.  This  response  came 
originally  from  the  Psalms,  and  its  utterance  by  the 
congregation  was  essential.  We  are  reminded  of 
St.  Paul's  words  in  i  Cor.  xiv.  i6:  "  Else  if  thou  bless 
with  the  spirit,  how  shall  he  that  filleth  the  place  of 
the  unlearned  say  the  Amen  at  thy  giving  of  thanks 
.  .  .  ? "  Regarding  these  last  words,  it  is  worth 
noticing,  as  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the 
Liturgy  of  the  early  Church  was,  in  some  of  its 
main  principles,  founded  on  the  pattern  of  the 
Jewish,  that  in  this  prayer  the  "  Amen  "  follows  the 
giving  of  thanks  \  of  this  thanksgiving  we  shall  speak 
presently.  The  importance  attached  to  the  congre- 
gation's "  Amen  "  ^  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  large  synagogue  at  Alexandria,  where  there 
was  a  difficulty  for  all  the  members  of  the  congrega- 
tion to  hear  when  the  end  of  the  prayer  was  reached, 
an  official  stood  up  on  the  platform  in  the  centre  of 
the  synagogue  and  waved  a  flag  as  a  sign  to  the 
congregation  to  say  the  "  Amen."  ^ 

1  cp.  the  conclusion  of  Ps.  cvi.         ^  Elbogen,  op.  cit.  p.  495. 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  '    175 

Regarding  the  structure  of  the  Shemonch  'Esyeh, 
in  its  present  form  there  is  an  important  point  to 
which  attention  must  be  drawn.  The  paragraphs, 
or  Benedictions,  fall  into  three  distinct  groups  ;  the 
first  three  are  ascriptions  of  Praise :  God,  the 
Most  High,  Possessor  of  all  things  ;  God,  the 
Mighty  One,  Sustainer  of  the  living  and  quickener 
of  the  dead  ;  God,  the  Holy  One,  who  is  praised 
every  day.  All  the  intermediate  ones  are  Peti- 
iions.  The  three  last  are  offerings  of  Thanks- 
giving. This  last  point  is  not  immediately  apparent 
in  all  of  the  three ;  but  a  very  little  examination 
shows  that  thanksgiving  is  the  underlying  thought 
even  where  not  directly  expressed.  Thus,  in  the  last 
but  two  (it  is  called  'Abodah,  "service")  the  prayer 
is  made  that  God  would  accept  His  people  Israel  and 
restore  the  service  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  but 
the  service  in  the  Temple,  i.e.  the  sacrificial  offerings, 
was,  among  other  things,  an  expression  of  thanks- 
giving ;  so  that  in  its  essence  this  Benediction  is 
rightly  regarded  as  coming  under  the  head  of  thanks- 
giving. In  the  eighteenth  Benediction  the  note  of 
thanksgiving  is  quite  clear :  "  We  give  thanks  unto 
Thee  .  .  .  O  Lord  our  God,  and  the  God  of  our 
fathers.  .  .  .  We  will  give  thanks  unto  Thee,  and 
declare  Thy  praise,  for  our  lives  which  are  committed 
into  Thy  hand,  and  for  our  souls  which  are  in  Thy 
charge,  for  Thy  miracles,  and  for  Thy  wonders,  and 
for  Thy  benefits  at  all  times."  Then,  as  to  the  final 
Benediction,  the  note  of  thanksgiving  is  to  be  dis- 
cerned in  the  words :  "  It  is  good  in  Thine  eyes  to 
bless  Thy  people  Israel,"  where  the  recognition  of  the 
divine  blessing  accorded  to  the  people  is  essentially  a 
form  of  genuine  thanksgiving.  So  that,  although  at 
first  sight  these  last  three  paragraphs  of  the  prayer  do 
not,  excepting  in  the  case  of  the  last  but  one,  seem  to 
come  under  the  head  of  thanksgiving,  they  do  so  in 
their   essence,    and    have   always    been    regarded    as 


176  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

expressions  of  thanksgiving  in  the  Jewish  Church. 
The  Shemoneh  'Esrch  seems,  therefore,  to  present  us 
with  the  earHest  pattern  of  what  the  subject-sequence 
of  divine  worship  should  be,  viz.  first  Praise  to  God, 
then  Petition,  then  Thanksgiving. 

The  next  point  of  interest  regarding  our  prayer  is 
this  :  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  is  the  earHest  example  of  a 
fixed  framework  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  enclosing 
variable  matter  according  to  the  sacred  seasons.  We 
have  just  seen  that  the  Benedictions  are  divided  into 
three  distinct  groups  :  the  first  three,  the  last  three, 
and  the  intervening  Benedictions.  The  first  three 
and  the  last  three  occupy,  and  have  always  occupied, 
a  very  special  position  ;  for  these  six  are  used  on 
every  day  of  the  year  without  exception.  The  other 
thirteen  are  used  only  on  ordinary  week-days, 
whereas  on  Sabbaths,  feasts,  and  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment they  give  place  to  special  petitions.  The  first 
three  and  the  last  three  Benedictions  form,  therefore, 
a  fixed  framework.  So  that  on  a  feast-day,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  consists  of  the  first  three 
Benedictions  of  Praise ;  then  there  follow,  not  the 
ordinary  thirteen  Petitions  as  quoted  just  now,  but 
special  petitions  (variable  in  number)  proper  to  the 
festival  or  fast ;  then  come  the  three  concluding  Bene- 
dictions of  Thanksgiving.  This  liturgical  principle  of 
a  fixed  framework  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  enclosing 
variable  matter  is  thus  seen  to  be  extremely  ancient ; 
and  we  find  it  in  our  Communion  Office — though 
here  the  praise  and  thanksgiving  portions  have 
changed  places — for  the  Proper  Prefaces,  variable 
according  to  the  season,  are  enclosed  by  the  constant 
paragraphs  of  thanksgiving  and  praise,  thus :  "  It  is 
very  meet,  right,  and  our  bounden  duty  that  we 
should  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  give  thanks  unto 
Thee,  O  Lord  .  .  .";  then  at  festivals  comes  the 
Proper  Preface,  of  variable  content  according  to  the 
season  ;     and    this    is    followed    by    the    unchanging 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  1^77 

offering  of  praise :  "  Therefore  with  angels  and 
archangels  and  with  all  the  company  of  Heaven,  we 
laud  and  magnify  Thy  glorious  name,  evermore 
praising  Thee  .  .  ." 

It  is,  of  course,  only  the  liturgical  principle  to 
which  attention  is  drawn,  and  which  the  Christian 
Church  in  all  probability  adopted  from  the  Jewish  ; 
the  details  naturally  differ. 

Then  we  come  to  another  interesting  point  in 
which  the  question  of  congregational  responses  is 
also  involved.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that 
after  the  third  Benediction  comes  what  is  called  the 
Kedushah  ("  Sanctification  "),  so  called  because  of  its 
content,  to  which  we  shall  come  in  a  moment ;  this 
Kedushah  is  now,  and  has  been  for  a  great  many 
centuries,  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Shemoneh 
'Esreh ;  it  was  certainly  not  so  originally,  as  it  does 
not  figure  in  either  the  Palestinian  or  Babylonian 
texts  of  the  prayer  ;  nevertheless,  it  had  already  been 
incorporated,  as  an  integral  part  of  the  prayer,  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  that  is  the  important  point  for 
us.  The  Kedushah  consists  of  responses  uttered  by 
the  reader  and  the  people,  and  is  as  follows : 

"  Reader.  We  will  sanctify  Thy  name  in  the  world  even  as 
they  sanctify  it  in  the  highest  heavens,  as  it  is  written  by  the 
hand  of  the  prophet  :  And  they  called  to  one  another  and  said  : 

People.  Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the  Lord  of  Hosts  ;  the  earth  is 
full  of  His  glory. 

Reader'.     Those  over  against  them  say,  Blessed— 

People.     Blessed  be  the  glory  of  the  Lord  from  His  place. 

Reader.     And  in  Thy  holy  words  it  is  written,  saying  : 

People.  The  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever,  Thy  God,  O  Zion, 
unto  all  generations.     Praise  ye  the  Lord  \i.e.  Hallelujah]. 

Reader.  Unto  all  generations  we  will  declare  Thy  great- 
ness, and  to  all  eternity  we  will  proclaim  Thy  holiness  ;  and 
Thy  praise,  O  our  God,  shall  not  depart  from  our  mouth  for 
ever,  for  Thou  art  a  great  and  holy  God  and  King.  Blessed  art 
Thou,  O  Lord,  the  Holy  God." 

In  all  probability  this  present  form  of  the  Kedushah 
is  an  amplification  of  its  primitive  form;    and  it    is 

N 


178  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDI^.VAL  JUDAISM 

difficult  not  to  believe  that  the  form  which  the  first 
Christians  used  was  the  parent  of  the  Sanctus  in  the 
Church's  Communion  Office. 

But  if  this  is  so  (and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted),  it 
makes  all  the  sadder  another  fact,  namely,  that  this 
prayer  acted  as  one  of  the  means  whereby  the 
complete  separation  between  Jews  and  Jewish- 
Christians  was  brought  about.  We  have  already 
seen  that  about  the  year  A.D.  100  Gamaliel  II.  added 
a  Benediction  to  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh ;  he  did  this 
with  the  object  of  excluding  Heretics  or  Gnostics, 
among  whom  must  be  reckoned  Christians,  from  the 
synagogue.  The  Benediction  he  added  was  what  is 
now  the  twelfth  : 

"  And  for  slanderers  let  there  be  no  hope, 
And  let  all  the  Minim  be  destroyed  as  in  a  moment  ; 
And  the  kingdom  of  arrogance  do  Thou  uproot  and  crush. 
Blessed   art  Thou,   O  Lord,  that  crushest  the   enemies,  and 
that  humblest  the  arrogant." 

The  jarring  note  of  bitterness  and  hatred  sounded 
in  this  paragraph  of  the  prayer  is  wholly  alien  to  the 
spirit  of  the  rest  of  it.  In  this  paragraph  two  types 
of  men,  hateful  to  the  Jews,  are  referred  to.  The 
first,  now  designated  "  slanderers,"  were  not  originally 
so  called  ;  in  this  paragraph  in  its  original  form  the 
word  was  Meshummadim,  i.e.  renegades.  So  that  the 
opening  line  of  this  paragraph  ran  originally  : 

"  And  for  renegades  [to  their  religion]  let  there  be  no  hope." 

As  to  the  Minim  spoken  of  in  the  second  line  of  the 
paragraph,  by  this  term  was  meant  those  who  differed 
from  the  orthodox  belief  of  the  Jews,  including 
Sadducees,  Samaritans,  Christians  and  Gnostics,  and 
heretics  generally.  But  the  use  of  the  word  in  this 
prayer  was  intended  to  be  directed  against  Christians, 
according  to  Elbogen.  It  seems  pretty  evident  that 
Justin  Martyr  refers  to  this  in  saying  that  the  Jews 


THE   SHEMONEH   'ESREH  179 

cursed  the  Christians  three  times  daily  in  their  syna- 
gogues ;  so,  too,  Epiphanius,  who  refers  to  the  prayer 
more  pointedly  in  saying  that  the  Jews  pray  to  God 
that  He  will  destroy  the  Nazarenes.  Elbogen  believes 
that  the  word  "  Nazarenes "  stood  in  the  prayer  at 
one  time.^ 

After  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  had  been  said  it  was 
customary  in  ancient  days  to  spend  a  short  time  in 
silent  prayer  and  supplication.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  however,  this  gradually  became  replaced  by  a 
set  form  of  Selichoth  ("  Petitions,"  or,  more  exactly, 
"Penitential  prayers"),  since  the  word  comes  from 
the  root  meaning  "  to  forgive."  These  Selichoth  (see 
further  §  XI.  on  the  Day  of  Atonement)  were  an 
outcome  of  the  assemblies  on  fast-days  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  (pp.  152  fif.).  Though 
originally  instituted  for  the  Day  of  Atonement  and 
fast-days  only,  they  were  gradually  extended  and 
used  at  other  services  as  well.  One  of  the  oldest  is 
that  beginning :  "  And  He,  being  merciful,  forgiveth 
iniquity  and  destroyeth  not  .  •  ." ;  this  is  known, 
from  the  Hebrew  of  the  opening  words,  as  Vehu 
Rachum ;  it  contains  references  to  many  Biblical 
passages,  which  is  characteristic  of  all  the  Selichoth. 
On  ordinary  occasions,  instead  of  Vehu  Rachum,  the 
Shemoneh  'Esreh  is  immediately  followed  by  two  sen- 
tences in  which  arc  sounded  the  notes  of  penitence, 
i.e.  the  Selichah  note,  and  that  of  supplication,  i.e. 
the  Tachanun  note,  thus  leading  over  to  the  next 
part  of  the  service,  the  Tachanunim.  These  two 
sentences  are  as  follows : 

"  And  David  said  unto  Gad,  I  am  troubled  exceedingly  ;  let 
us  fall,  I  pray  thee,  into  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  for  His  mercies 
are  many,  but  let  me  not  fall  into  the  hand  of  man "  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  14). 

^  op.  at.  p.  36.  On  the  other  hand,  Abrahams,  in  his  edition 
of  the  Prayer  Book,  p.  Ixiv  f ,  holds  strongly  that  the  reference 
.throughout  the  Benediction  is  to  sectarian  Jews. 

N   2 


i8o  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

"  O  Thou  who  art  merciful  and  gracious,  I  have  sinned  before 
Thee. 

O  Lord,  full  of  mercy,  have  mercy  upon  me  and  receive  my 
supplications  "  ( Tachanunai). 


VIII 

THE   TACIIANUNIM 

The  word  Tachanunim  means  "  Petitions  for  grace  "  ; 
the  origin  of  these  is  very  interesting.  In  the  Temple 
worship  during  the  service  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
the  whole  congregation  twice  prostrated  itself  upon 
the  ground :  first  when  the  Levites  sounded  with 
their  trumpets  and  the  high-priest  gave  the  blessing, 
and  again  when  the  high-priest  pronounced  the  abso- 
lution.^ On  these  occasions  of  prostration  the  people, 
according  to  the  Mishnah,  offered  up  private  prayer.^ 
The  custom  was  continued  in  the  synagogue  worship  ; 
and  these  private  prayers,  instead  of  being  offered  up 
at  the  close  of  the  public  sacrifice,  were  said  at  the 
close  of  the  congregational  prayers — that  is,  at  the 
end  of  public  worship  ;  opportunity  was  then  given 
to  the  individual  worshipper  to  pour  out  his  heart  to 
God.^  "  By  this  means,"  as  Elbogen  says,  ''  the  most 
difficult  problem  of  congregational  worship  was 
solved ;  it  gave  the  due  adjustment  between  the 
demands  of  the  congregation,  for  which  united  prayer 
was  indispensable,  and  the  reasonable  craving  of  the 
individual  for  personal  communion  with  God.  The 
demand  of  the  congregation  receives  prior  recog- 
nition, but,  this  having  been  satisfied,  opportunity  is 
given  to  the  individual  worshipper  to  pour  forth 
without  restraint  the  inner  yearnings  of  his  heart."  ^ 

^  cp.  Ecclus.  1.  1 6-2 1. 
'^  See  Elbogen,  op.  at.  p,  jt,. 

^  cp.  the  Psalmist's  words  :  "  Commune  with  your  own  heart 
.  .  .  and  be  still  "  (Ps.  iv.  4  [5  in  Hebr.]). 
*  op.  cit.  p.  74. 


THE  TACHANUNIM  i8i 

In  later  times  the  place  for  private  prayer  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  conclusion  of  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh.  The 
point  to  be  emphasised  is  that  opportunity  for 
private  prayer  during  public  worship  was  thus  offi- 
cially provided  for.  In  course  of  time  the  duration 
of  private  prayers  was  regulated  ;  it  was  laid  down 
that  "  they  who  utter  words  ^  after  the  Tephillah  "  ^ 
might  make  their  prayer  as  long  as  they  wished,  but 
it  must  not  be  longer  than  the  longest  prayer 
known  ^ — that  is,  the  prayer  of  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. In  later  centuries  this  admirable  provision 
for  private  prayers  during  public  worship  largely 
fell  into  disuse,  though  not  wholly ;  and  by  degrees 
its  place  was  taken  by  what  are  now  known  as 
the  Tachanunim,  i.e.  "  Petitions  for  grace."  These 
have  now  become  an  integral  part  of  the  official 
prayers  of  the  synagogue.  What  is  known  as  the 
Tachanun  is  based,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the  words  of 
David  in  2  Sam.  xxiv.  14:  "Let  us  now  fall  into  the 
hand  of  the  Lord,  for  His  mercies  are  great ;  and 
let  me  not  fall  into  the  hand  of  man."  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  Tachanun  comes  immediately  after 
the  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  according  to  the  old  usage. 

It  is  necessary  to  add  that  the  words  of  Dan.  ix. 
3  ff  came  to  be  brought  into  connexion  with  the 
Tachanunim ;  the  prayer  in  that  passage,  it  will  be 
noticed,  goes  over  into  a  confession  of  sin.  This 
element  has  entered  into  all  the  Tachanunim,  and 
they  have  thus  come  to  be  very  largely,  like  the 
Selichoth,  penitential  prayers.  This  transformation 
of  private  prayers  into  public  penitential  prayers  is 
a  fact  full  of  human  interest. 


^  To  "  utter  words "  is  an  early  technical  term    for  private 

ayer. 

-  Another  name,  as  we  have  seen,  for  the  S/temone/i  ''Esreh. 

^   Tos.  Berakhoth  iii.  6,  quoted  by  Elbogen. 


i82  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDLEVAL  JUDAISM 

IX 

THE    READING   OF   THE   LAW 

One  of  the  main  objects  of  public  worship  was 
instruction  in  the  Law,  and  for  this  purpose  various 
sections  from  the  Pentateuch  and  other  parts  of  the 
Bible  were  introduced  into  the  regular  prayers.  But 
besides  these  were  readings  from  the  Scroll.  The 
Pentateuch  is  now,  in  most  synagogues,  read  through 
on  Sabbaths  once  a  year ;  this  custom  comes  down 
to  us  from  Babylonian  usage.  In  Palestine  the 
Pentateuch  was  read  through  once  in  three  years,  this 
being  what  is  known  as  the  Triennial  Cycle.^ 

The  Scrolls  of  the  Law  are  kept  in  the  Ark,  which 
is  placed  at  the  east  end  of  the  synagogue.  When 
the  Ark  is  opened  and  when  the  Scroll  of  the  Law 
is  taken  out  various  sentences  based  on  Scriptural 
passages  are  said.  On  Mondays,  Thursdays,  Sabbath 
afternoons,  and  on  Fast-days  three  pd*i'sons  are  called 
to  the  reading  of  the  Law  :  a  priest,^  a  Levite,^  and  an 
Israelite  ;  these  in  days  gone  by  read  the  Pentateuch 
passages  themselves  ;  now,  however,  this  is  done  by 
the  officiating  reader.  Benedictions  are  said  before 
and  after  the  reading  of  the  Law  ;  these  embody 
passages  from  Scripture.  Then  come  Pss.  cxlv.  and 
XX.,  followed  by  a  passage  beginning  with  a  citation 
from  Is.  lix.  20,  21  :  "And  a  Redeemer  shall  come 
to  Zion  .  .  .",  which  leads  over  to  the  concluding 
portion  of  the  service.  This  we  have  already  con- 
sidered.^ 

^  Abrahams,  Atmotated  Prayer  Book.,  p.  Ixxviii, 

'^  i.e.  one  descended  from   a  priestly  family,  or  a  Levitical 

family,  respectively. 

^  The  daily  afternoon  service  is  a  shortened  form  of  morning 

service  ;  the  daily  evening  service  is  also  based  upon  it,  but 

modified  in  some  respects  and  adapted  to  evening  time  ;  it  is 

not  regarded  as  obligatory. 


KADDISH  183 

X 

KADDISH 

Kaddish  means  *'  Sanctification " ;  it  was  in  its 
origin  a  doxology  uttered  by  a  teacher  at  the  close 
of  his  discourse,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
worship  of  the  synagogue  ;  but  in  course  of  time  it 
was  incorporated  in  the  Liturgy  to  mark  the  close  of 
parts  of  the  service.  In  the  first  form  in  which  it 
occurs  in  the  service  it  is  abbreviated,  and  is  known 
as  Half-Kaddish.  Full  KadAish  is  said  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  service  proper,  i.e.  after  the  Shemoneh 
'Esreh ;  in  this  form  it  is  known  as  Kaddish 
tithkahhal,  from  the  opening  word  of  one  of  the 
sections,  ''May  there  he  accepted  the  prayers  and 
supplications  of  all  Israel  by  their  Father  which  is 
in  Heaven  ;  and  say  ye,  Amen."  A  third  form  of 
Kaddish  was  said  at  the  close  of  reading  extracts 
from  Rabbinical  writings  ;  hence  it  is  called  Rab- 
binical Kaddish.  But  the  two  most  interesting 
forms  of  Kaddish  are  "Mourner's  Kaddish''  and  the 
'*  Kaddish  of  Renewal."  The  former  of  these  was 
"originally  recited  at  the  close  of  the  seven  days' 
mourning,  with  the  religious  discourses  and  bene- 
dictions associated  with  it,  but  (^Sopherim  xix.  12) 
only  at  the  death  of  a  scholar  ;  afterwards,  in  order 
not  to  put  others  to  shame,  it  was  recited  after  every 
burial."  ^  The  "  Mourner's  Kaddish "  is  recited  by 
mourners  in  the  synagogue  during  the  first  eleven 
months  after  the  death  of  a  parent,  and  on  anniver- 
saries afterwards.  This  constitutes  a  memorial  of  the 
departed,  though  it  is  not  a  prayer  for  the  departed. 
It  seems,  however,  i)ossible  that  "  Mourner's  Kaddish  " 
represents  a  faint  echo  of,  or  substitute  for,  some- 
thing that  was  originally  a  definite  prayer  for  the 
departed.  Elbogen  points  out  that,  according  to 
^   Kohler  mJE  vii.  401. 


i84  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Shahbath    iigb,   there    was    a    mystic    idea    of    the 
miraculous    efficacy    which    the    recitation    of    this 
Kaddish  had  both  for  the  Hving  and  the  dead.     The 
following  story,!  ^q\^  of  Rabbi  Akiba,  who  lived   in 
the  early  part  of  the  second  century  A.D.,  throws  an 
interesting  sidelight  on  the  point:   Rabbi  Akiba  was 
once  walking  through  a  forest  when  he  met  a  man 
rushing  along  carrying  a  great  burden  ;    the    Rabbi 
accosted  him,  asking  him  why  he  was  thus  hurrying 
along   with   that   burden    on    his  ^.?back.     The    man 
replied  that  he  was  condemned  to  do  so  throughout 
the  centuries  because  of  the  sins  he  had  committed 
when  he  had    lived    as    a   mortal    on    earth.     Rabbi 
Akiba  asked  him  if  he  had  had  no  son.     The  man 
replied  that  he  could  not  say,  for  he  had  died  before 
his  wife  had  borne  him  a  child  ;  one  might  have  been 
born  after  he  had  died,  but  he  did  not  know.     Then 
the    man    continued    his    endless    journey.      Rabbi 
Akiba  thereupon  bestirred  himself  to   seek   out   the 
man's  widow.     After  much  toil    he    found    her,    and 
learned  that  she  had  given  birth  to  a  son  after  her 
husband's  death.     Then  the  Rabbi  told  her  to  teach 
her  son  to  say  the  "  Mourner's  Kaddish,''  and  to  bid 
him  recite  it  in  the  synagogue.     She  did  so  ;   and  the 
boy  recited  the  "Mourner's  Kaddish''  in    the   syna- 
gogue.    Soon    after    the    man    appeared    to    Rabbi 
Akiba  in  a  night-vision,  and  thanked  him  for   what 
he  had  done,  telling  him  that   his    punishment   had 
ceased,  and   that  he  was  now  resting  in  Paradise  in 
peace. 

The  story  clearly  suggests  that  at  one  time  the 
"  Mourner's  Kaddish "  partook  of  the  character  of  a 
prayer  said  for  the  benefit  of  the  departed  ;  this  is 
made  the  more  probable  by  the  fact  that  what  is 
called  "  Renewal  Kaddish"  is  said  at  the  close  of  the 

^  It  is  only  the  substance  of  the  story  which  is  given  ;  it  was 
told  to  the  writer  by  a  well-known  Jewish  minister ;  it  is 
from  an  ancient  Midrashic  source. 


KADDISH  185 

service  for  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  "  Renewal " 
here  refers  to  the  new  world  hereafter.  Though 
"  Mourner's  Kaddish "  is  not  directly  a  prayer  for 
the  departed,  that  does  not  mean  to  say  that  the 
Jewish  Liturgy  does  not  contain  such  prayers  (see 
pp.  201  ff.). 

.The  following  is  a  translation  of  Kaddish'^  in  its 
full  form  : 

"And  now,  I  pray  Thee,  let  the  power  of  the  Lord  be  great, 
according  as  Thou  hast  spoken.  Remember,  O  Lord,  Thy 
tender  mercies  and  Thy  loving-kindnesses  ;  for  they  have  been 
ever  of  old.  (This  is  not  said  aloud  on  any  occasion  during  the 
service.) 

Magnified  and  sanctified  ^  be  His  great  Name  in  the  world 
which  He  liath  created  according  to  His  will.  May  He  es- 
tablish His  Kingdom  during  your  life  and  during  your  days,  and 
during  the  life  of  all  the  house  of  Israel,  even  speedily  and  at 
a  near  time,  and  say  ye,  Amen. 

Reader  and  People.  Let  His  great  Name  be  blessed  for  ever 
and  to  all  eternity. 

Reader.  Blessed,  praised  and  glorified,  exalted,  extolled  and 
honoured,  magnified  and  lauded  be  the  Name  of  the  Holy 
One. 

Reader  and  People.     Blessed  be  He  ! 

Reader.  Though  He  be  high  above  all  the  blessings  and 
hymns,  praises  and  consolations,  which  are  uttered  in  the  world  ; 
and  say  ye.  Amen. 

People.  Accept  our  prayer  in  mercy  and  in  favour  (said 
privately). 

Reader.  May  the  prayers  and  supplications  of  all  Israel  be 
accepted  by  their  Father  which  is  in  heaven  ;  and  say  ye, 
Amen. 

People.  Let  the  name  of  the  Lord  be  blessed  from  this  time 
forth  for  evermore  (said  privately). 

Reader.  May  there  be  abundant  peace  from  Heaven,  and 
life  for  us  and  for  all  Israel  ;  and  say  ye.  Amen. 

People.  My  help  is  from  the  Lord,  who  hath  made  heaven 
and  earth  (said  privately). 

Reader.  He  who  maketh  peace  in  His  high  places,  may  He 
make  peace  for  us  and  for  all  Israel  ;  and  say  ye.  Amen," 


^  Its  original  language  is  Aramaic,  not  Hebrew. 

2  It  is  this  word  which  gives  the  name  to  this  prayer. 


i86  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

When  HsiU-Kaddish  is  said  it  begins  at  "  Magnified 
and  sanctified  be  His  great  Name,"  and  ends  with 
the  sentence  said  by  the  Reader :  "  Blessed,  praised 
and  glorified."  Rabbinical  Kaddish  differs  from  the 
ordinary  form  in  that  it  inserts  after  the  Reader's 
words  "  Blessed,  praised  and  glorified  .  .  ."  the  fol- 
lowing sentence :  "  Unto  Israel,  and  unto  the  Rabbis, 
and  unto  their  disciples,  and  unto  all  the  disciples  of 
their  disciples,  and  unto  all  who  engage  in  the  study 
of  the  Law,  in  this  or  in  any  other  place,  unto  them 
and  unto  you  be  abundant  peace,  grace,  loving- 
kindness,  mercy,  long  life,  ample  sustenance,  and 
salvation  from  the  Father  which  is  in  Heaven,  and 
say  ye,  Amen."  Then  it  goes  on  at  "  Let  the  Name 
of  the  Lord  be  blessed "  to  the  end.  Mourner's 
Kaddish  is  the  same  as  ordinary  Kaddish  up  to  the 
end  of  "  Blessed,  praised  and  glorified " ;  the  two 
sentences  which  follow  this  are  omitted  ;  the  place  of 
the  Reader  is  taken  by  the  mourner,  who  says  all 
the  versicles,  while  the  people  make  the  usual  re- 
sponses. Renewal  Kaddish,  so  called  because  of  the 
reference  to  the  new  creation  hereafter,  belongs  to 
the  Hurial  Service ;  it  is  said  by  children  after  the 
burial  of  a  parent,  the  responses  being  uttered  by  the 
people  present ;   it  is  as  follows  : 

Mourners.  "  May  His  great  Name  be  magnified  and  sanc- 
tified in  the  world  that  is  to  be  created  anew,  where  He  will 
quicken  the  dead,  and  raise  them  up  unto  life  eternal  ;  will 
rebuild  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  establish  His  temple  in  the 
midst  thereof;  and  will  uproot  all  alien  worship  from  the 
earth,  and  restore  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  O  may  the 
Holy  One— Blessed  be  He— reign  in  His  sovereignty  and 
glory  during  your  life  and  during  your  days,  and  during  the  life 
of  all  the  house  of  Israel,  even  speedily  and  at  a  near  time  ; 
and  say  ye,  Amen." 

It  then  continues  at  "  Let  His  great  Name  be  blessed 
for  ever  and  to  all  eternity,"  and  the  rest  is  the  same 
as  in  ordinary  Kaddish ;  but  the  Reader  takes  no 
part  in  Renewal  Kaddish. 


THE   SERVICES   FOR  THE   SABBATH      187 

The  reference  to  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and 
the  re-establishment  of  the  Temple  points  to  this 
form  of  Kaddish  as  belonging  to  a  date  subsequent 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  A.D.  70. 

This  is,  then,  the  order  of  the  daily  Morning 
Prayer  in  the  synagogue,  the  central  elements  of 
which  were  originally :  Confession,  the  Shema'  and 
the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  the 
Reading  of  the  Law  and  its  Interpretation,  Psalms, 
and  the  Priestly  Blessing  (not  necessarily  in  this 
order).  Around  these,  in  course  of  ages,  large 
developments  have  grown  up,  as  well  as  modifica- 
tions in  the  order  of  the  different  elements  in  the 
service.  While  Confession,  the  reciting  of  the  Ten 
Commandments,  and  the  Reading  of  the  Law  (this 
latter  taking  place  only  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays, 
and  of  course  on  Sabbaths)  do  not  occupy  quite  the 
same  prominent  position  as  in  the  early  centuries  of 
our  era,  the  Shema^  and  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  form, 
as  ever,  the  most  outstanding  features  of  the  worship 
of  the  synagogue. 


XI 

THE   SERVICES   FOR    THE   SABBATH  • 

The  very  special  sanctity  with  which  the  Sabbath 
is,  and  always  has  been,  regarded  by  the  Jews  finds 
expression  in  various  striking  ways  both  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  services  as  well  as  in  the  services, 
and  in  the  celebration  of  special  rites  peculiar  to  the 
Sabbath.  There  are  six  services  held  in  celebration 
of  the  Sabbath.  A  short  account  of  each  of  these 
will  give  some  insight  into  the  character  of  this  very 
important  weekly  festival. 


i88  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

(i)  Inauguration  of  the  Sabbath 

Originally,  and,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered,  long 
before  the  iDeginning  of  the  Christian  era,  this  was  a 
home  service,  and  continued  so  for  many  centuries. 
It  is  still  a  home  service;  but  during  the  Amoraic  ^ 
period  there  was  instituted,  first  in  Babylonia  and 
later  in  Palestine,  a  synagogue  service  as  well  as  a 
home  service  for  the  inauguration  of  the  Sabbath,  on 
Friday  nights. 

The  home  service  begins  with  the  lighting  of  the 
Sabbath  lights.  It  is  the  special  duty  of  the  woman 
of  the  house  to  kindle  these  two  candles,^  the  lights 
being  the  symbol  of  joy  at  the  coming  festival  which 
it  is  the  woman's  privilege  to  proclaim.  Then  follows 
the  Kiddush,  i.e.  "  Sanctification  "  of  the  day,  said  by 
the  head  of  the  house.  This  is  a  Benediction  uttered 
over  bread  and  wine.  The  contents  of  the  Kiddush 
are  as  follows  : 

Gen.  i,  31-ii.  3. 

The  Blessing  over  the  wine  :  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord  our 
God,  King  of  the  universe,  who  Greatest  the  fruit  of  the 
vine." 

A  Benediction  is  joined  to  this  in  the  words  :  "  Blessed  art 
Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who  hast 
sanctified  us  by  Thy  commandments  and  hast  taken 
pleasure  in  us,  and  in  love  and  favour  hast  given  us  Thy 
holy  Sabbath  as  an  inheritance,  a  memorial  of  the  creation, 
that  day  being  also  the  first  of  the  holy  convocations,^ 
in  remembrance  of  the  departure  from  Egypt.*  For  Thou 
hast  chosen  us  and  sanctified  us  above  all  nations,-^  and  in 
love  and  favour  hast  given  us  Thy  holy  Sabbath  as  an 
inheritance.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  hallowest  the 
Sabbath."  « 


*  See  pp.  22  fif.,  ii6fif. 

•2  In  the  Mishnah,  Shabbath  ii.  6,  it  is  said:  "Because  of 
three  transgressions  women  die  in  child-birth  :  because  they  do 
not  pay  due  regard  to  .  .  .  and  to  the  (Sabbath)  lights." 

^  Lev.  xxiii.  i  ff.  ^  Deut.  v.  15. 

^  Deut.  vii.  6,  7.  «  Gen.  ii.  3  ;  Ex.  xx.  u. 


THE   SERVICES   FOR  THE   SABBATH      189 

The  Blessing  over  the  bread  :  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord  our 
God,  King  of  the  Universe,  who  bringest  forth  bread  from 
the  earth.'  ^ 

Then  follows  the  ordinary  Sabbath  meal.^  The  text 
of  Kiddush  is  practically  the  same  in  all  the  various 
Rituals — "  a  proof,"  as  Elbogen  says,  "  that  it  rests  on 
good  ancient  tradition."  ^ 

A  very  much  later  custom  is  the  synagogue  service 
of  the  Inauguration  of  the  Sabbath.  This  dates  from 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  in  the  home 
service,  the  Sabbath  lights  are  kindled  (not,  of  course, 
by  a  woman  in  this  case)  ;  and,  moreover,  a  shortened 
form  of  Kiddush  is  said  (the  Genesis  passage  being 
omitted),  but  this  comes  now  during  the  first  Sabbath 
service  proper.  Mr.  Abrahams  points  out  that  the 
saying  of  Kiddush  in  the  synagogue  "  arose  from  the 
custom  of  entertaining  and  lodging  wayfarers  in  the 
synagogue  precincts,  and  thus  the  rite  was  part  of 
the  meal  provided  for  the  communal  guests.  The 
public  Kiddush,  however,  as  an  act  of  sanctification, 
was  retained  long  after  it  ceased  to  be  customary 
to  associate  the  guest-house  with  the  place  of 
worship."  ^ 

The  Service  for  the  Inauguration  of  the  Sabbath, 
which  varies  in  the  different  Rituals,  begins  with  the 
kindling  of  the  Sabbath  lights,  during  which  is  said  : 
"  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the 
universe,  who  hast  sanctified  us  by  Thy  command- 
ments, and  commanded  us  to  kindle  the  Sabbath 
light."  This  command  is  not  based  upon  any  Biblical 
ordinance,  but  upon  tradition  which  is  also  regarded 
as  divine.  Then  Ps.  xcv.  (the  "  Venite ")  is  said, 
together  with  Pss.  xcvi.-xcix.  and  xxix.  These  are 
followed    by  a   beautiful    hymn,    called   Lekah  Dodi 

1  Ps.  civ.  14. 

2  It  is  important  to  note  that  originally  Kiddush  took  place 
afte?'  the  festal  meal  ;  cp.  Elbogen,  op.  at.  p.  107. 

^  op.  ciL  p.  112.  ■*  op.  cit.  p.  cxl. 


190  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

("  Come,  my  friend,  to  meet  the  bride  ") ;  it  was  com- 
posed by  Alkabetz  (Solomon  the  Levite,  cp.  p.  289)  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  spoken 
of  by  Schechter  as  "perhaps  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of 
religious  poetry  in  existence."  ^  In  it  the  Sabbath  is 
personified  as  a  bride,  and  every  worshipper  is  called 
upon  to  go  forth  and  meet  her.  The  poem  consists 
of  nine  stanzas,  after  each  of  which  the  refrain  is 
sung  :  "  Come,  my  friend,  to  meet  the  bride  ;  let  us 
welcome  the  presence  of  the  Sabbath."  Lekah  Dodi 
is  found  in  all  the  Rituals.  Then  come  Pss.  xcii. 
(the  Psalm  for  the  Sabbath  day)  and  xciii.  This  ends 
the  Inauguration  Service  in  the  synagogue. 


(ii)  Service  for  Sabbath  Eve  (Maarib) 

This  follows  immediately  after  the  foregoing,  and 
is  in  its  structure  the  same  as  the  ordinary  week-day 
evening  service,  though  there  are  naturally  some 
variations  and  additions  in  details. ^  The  reading  of 
the  Mishnah  treatise  Shabbath,  chap,  ii.,  after  the 
Shcmoneh  'Esreh  is  one  of  these  additions  ;  this 
passage  is  chosen  because  it  gives  directions  regarding 
the  Sabbath  lights.  It  is  followed  by  a  passage  from 
the  Talmudic  tractate  Berakhoth  which  speaks  of  the 
peace  which  is  to  be  the  lot  of  those  who  love  the 
Law.  At  this  point  of  the  service  Kiddush  is  said 
(see  above).  The  rest  of  the  service  concludes  as  on 
ordinary  days,  excepting  that  Yigdal  is  sung  at  the 
end  of  the  service. 

It  is  the  custom  on  the  eve  of  the  Sabbath  and  on 
holy-days  at  the  conclusion  of  this  service  for  parents 
to  pronounce  a  formal  blessing  upon  their  children, 
whether  young  or  grown-up.     This  is  a  home  rite  ; 

1  Studies  in  Jtidaistn  (second  series),  p.  228. 

^  Regarding  the  saying  of  the  She7no?ieh  'Esreh  on  Sabbaths 
and  festivals,  see  above,  pp.  175  ff.  It  consists  here  of  only  seven 
Benedictions. 


THE  SERVICES  FOR  THE  SABBATH     191 

but  it  is  sometimes  done  in  the  synagogue  by  the 
Rabbis,  only,  of  course,  as  regards  boys.  When  done 
at  home  the  father,  or  the  mother,  places  both  hands 
on  the  head  of  each  child  ;  to  boys  is  said  :  "  God 
make  thee  as  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  "  ;  to  girls  : 
"God  make  thee  as  Sarah,  Rebekah,  Rachel,  and 
Leah."  Then  follows  the  blessing  proper  upon  all  : 
"  The  Lord  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee ;  the  Lord  make 
His  face  to  shine  upon  thee,  and  be  gracious  unto 
thee  ;  the  Lord  turn  His  face  unto  thee,  and  give  thee 
peace."  Finally,  Prov.  xxxi.  10-31  is  read.  This 
custom  is  ancient,  for,  although  not  incorporated  into 
the  Liturgy  until  the  sixteenth  century,  it  is  already 
referred  to  in  the  tractate  Sopherim  xviii.  5,  which 
embodies  a  mass  of  ancient  material. 

(iii)  Service  for  Sabbath  Morning 

The  structure  of  this  very  important  service  is  to  a 
large  extent  identical  with  that  for  week-days  ;  but, 
as  one  would  naturally  expect,  there  are  some 
variations  and  some  notable  additions.  Up  to  the 
end  of  the  Praise  portion  (Zemiroth  ;  see  above,  §  V.) 
there  are  the  following  differences  :  The  addition  of 
Num.  xxviii.  9,  10  to  the  "sacrificial  passages";  the 
meditation  and  benedictions  for  the  Tephillin  are  not 
said  ;^  instead  of  Ps.  c.  (see  p.  156),  there  are  said 
Pss.  xix.,  xxxiv.,  xc,  xci.,  cxxxv.,  cxxxvi.,  xxxiii., 
xcii.,  and  xciii.  ;  and  after  Ex.  xiv.  30-xv.  i8'^ 
(see  p.  156)  four  ascriptions  of  praise  are  uttered 
before  the  concluding  Benediction  of  praise, 
Yishtabhach  Shimeka.  Of  these  four  additions  a  few 
words  must  be  said.  By  far  the  most  important  of 
them,  called  Nishmath,  from  the  opening  word  ("  The 
breath  of  every  living  being  shall  bless  Thy  name  "), 

^  The  Tephillin  are  not  worn  on  Sabbaths. 
'^  Originally     this     probably    belonged    exclusively    to     the 
Sabbath  Zemifoth^  also  called  Pesiikc  de  Zinira. 


192  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

is  a  beautiful  hymn  of  praise,  and  ancient.  It  is  found 
in  a  more  or  less  identical  form  in  all  the  Rituals, 
and  is  referred  to  as  well  known  by  Rabbi  Jochanan 
(first  century  A.D.).  A  strange  thing  about  Nishma'h 
is  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  widely  held  to  have 
been  written  by  the  Apostle  Peter ;  how  this  curious 
belief  arose  seems  to  be  quite  unknown.  Nishmath 
is  a  long  hymn  of  praise,  and  full  of  Scriptural 
phraseology.  The  other  three  are  quite  short,  the 
second  being  from  Is.  Ivii.  15  ;  all  breathe  forth  an 
intense  spirit  of  praise. 

The  service  then  continues  as  on  week-days  ;  the 
introductory  and  concluding  Benedictions  to  the 
Shema'  are,  however,  fuller.  The  Shemoneh  'Esreh  on 
Sabbath  mornings  consists  of  only  seven  Benedictions  ; 
the  three  first  and  the  three  last  are  the  same  as  on 
week-days,  though  the  Kediishah  (see  pp.  177  ff.)  is 
somewhat  amplified  on  Sabbaths.  It  is  the  fourth 
which  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh 
on  the  Sabbath  ;  it  runs  thus  : 

Mosfs  rejoiced  i?i  the  gift  of  his  portioft,  for  Thou  didst  call 
him  a  faithful  servant;  a  diadem  of  glory  didst  Thou  place 
upon  his  head,  when  he  stood  before  Thee  on  Mount  Si?iaij  afid 
in  his  hand  he  brought  down  the  two  tables  of  stone,  upon  which 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  was  prescribed,  and  thus  it  is 
written  in   Thy  Law, 

Then  follows  Ex.  xxxi.  16,  17,  the  points  being,  as 
Mr.  Abrahams  says,  that  "  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  is  ordained  in  the  Decalogue,  but  also  it  is 
written  elsewhere  in  the  Law.  The  Sabbath  is 
referred  to  in  ten  passages  over  and  above  theifourth 
commandment."  ^  The  service  then  continues  as  on 
weekdays  ;  but  the  ceremony  of  the  Reading  of  the 
Law  is  more  elaborate  on  Sabbaths.  In  addition  to 
the  Reading  of  the  Law,  there  is,  on  Sabbaths,  also 
the  Reading  from  the  Prophets.  This  is  called  the 
Haphtarah,  which  means  "dismissal,"  or  perhaps 
'  op.  cit.  p.  cxlviii. 


THE   SERVICES   FOR  THE   SABBATH     193 

'•  conclusion,"  for  it  comes  at  the  end  of  the  service. 
The  reading  of  the  Haphtarah  was  introduced  long 
before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.^ 

Another  ceremony,  also  very  ancient,  in  connexion 
with  the  Sabbath  may  be  mentioned,  viz.  the 
announcing  of  the  new  month.  This  is  done  on 
the  Sabbath  preceding  new  moon.  "  In  ancient 
times  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Sanhedrin  to  declare 
the  beginning  of  the  new  month,  which  was  originally 
fixed  by  actual  observation,  and  not  only  by  astro- 
nomical calculation.  The  declaration  was  accom- 
panied by  blessings  and  praises  {Sopherim  xix.  9). 
The  synagogue  announcement  is  a  survival  of  this 
ancient  rite."''  The  prayer  said  in  the  synagogue 
on  this  occasion  dates  from  the  third  century  A.D., 
though  it  is  not  incorporated  in  the  older  Rituals  ;  it 
runs  as  follows  : 

"  May  it  be  Thy  will,  O  Lord  our  God,  and  God  of  our 
fathers,  to  renew  unto  us  this  coming  month  for  good  and  for 
blessing.  O  grant  us  long  life,  a  life  of  peace,  of  good,  of 
blessing,  of  sustenance,  of  bodily  vigour,  a  life  marked  by  the 
fear  of  Heaven  and  a  dread  of  sin,  a  life  free  from  shame  and 
reproach,  a  life  of  prosperity  and  honour,  a  life  m  which  the 
love  of  the  Law  and  the  fear  of  Heaven  shall  cleave  to  us,  a 
life  in  which  the  desires  of  our  heart  shall  be  fulfilled  for  good. 
Amen." 

(iv)  Additional  Service  for  the  Sabbath 

This  service,  called  Musaph  ("  Addition "),  corre- 
sponds to  the  additional  sacrifices  in  the  Temple 
worship  on  Sabbaths,  new  moons,  and  festivals, 
commanded  in  Num.  xxviii,,  xxix.  It  opens  with 
the  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  consisting  of  seven  Benedictions, 
of  which,  as  usual,  the  three  first  and  three  last  are 
as  on  ordinary  days ;  the  central  Benediction  appro- 
priately makes  mention  of  the  additional  sacrifices 
offered  in  the  Temple  on  Sabbaths.     The  Kedushah 

^  cp.  Luke  iv.  i6ff.         ^  Abrahams,  op.  cit.  p.  clxi. 

O 


194  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

for  Musaph  differs  from  the  usual  one  in  its  reference 
to  the  vision  of  Jsaiah  and  the  declaration  of  the 
Unity  of  God.  It  is  known  as  the  "Great  Kedu- 
shah."  Then  follows  Kaddish.  The  next  part  of 
the  service  opens  with  the  canticle  'En  Kelohenu 
("There  is  none  like  our  God")  and  extracts  from 
the  Talmud  and  the  Mishnah.  The  'Alenu  Prayer 
("  For  us  it  is  the  duty  to  praise  the  Lord  "),  which 
is  then  said,  belongs  specially  to  the  Musaph  of  New 
Year,  though  it  has  been  transferred  to  the  daily 
morning  service  as  well.  It  is  a  very  ancient  prayer, 
in  all  probability  pre-Christian,  and  deals  specially 
with  the  divine  Kingship.  While  in  the  first  half  a 
somewhat  particularistic  note  is  struck,  the  second 
half  is  thoroughly  universalistic,  as  the  following 
extract  will  show : 

"Let  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  perceive  and  know 
that  unto  Thee  every  knee  must  bow,  every  tongue  must  swear. 
Before  Thee,  O  Lord  our  God,  let  them  bow  and  fall  ;  and  unto 
Thy  glorious  name  let  them  give  honour  ;  let  them  all  accept 
the  yoke  of  Thy  kingdom,  and  do  Thou  reign  over  them 
speedily,  and  for  ever  and  ever.  For  Thine  is  the  kingdom, 
and  to  all  eternity  shalt  Thou  reign  in  glory." 

Then  comes  Mourner's  Kaddish  (see  p.  184)  and 
'Adon  Vlam  (see  p.  157).  The  "Unity  Hymn  for 
the  Sabbath  Day "  is  then  said  ;  this  is  a  late  com- 
position, belonging  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century.  The  service  concludes  with  the  Hymn  of 
Glory,  Ps.  xcii.,  and  Mourner's  Kaddish  is  repeated  if 
mourners  are  present. 

(v)  Service  for  Sabbath  Afternoon 

This  service  is  called  Minchah  (see  p.  155).  After 
some  introductory  sentences  and  Ps.  cxlv.,  and  "And 
a  Redeemer  shall  come  to  Zion  .  .  .  ,"  Kaddish  is  said  ; 
then  the  first  section  {Parashah)  of  the  Lesson  (Sidra) 
from  the  Pentateuch  of  the,  following  Sabbath  is  read. 
The  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  which  follows,  has  again  seven 


THE   SERVICES  FOR  THE  SABBATH     195 

Benedictions,  of  which  the  intermediate  one  (the 
fourth)  is  proper  to  this  service  ;  its  special  notes  are 
the  Unity  of  God  and  the  Sabbath  rest.  Kaddish 
again  concludes  this  first  part  of  the  service.  Then 
come  the  Psalms,  viz.  civ.  and  the  fifteen  Songs  of 
Ascent  (cxx.-cxxxiv.).^  From  Passover  to  New 
Year  one  chapter  of  Pirke  Ahoth  is  read  every  week  ; 
during  the  rest  of  the  year  the  Psalms  mentioned  are 
all  read  every  Sabbath  ;  this  is  followed  by  the  'Alenu 
Prayer  and  Mourner's  Kaddish. 

(vi)  Service  for  the  Conclusion  of  the  Sabbath 

This  service  is  largely  the  same  as  that  for  the 
ordinary  weekday  evening  service ;  but  it  opens 
with  Pss.  cxliv.,  Ixvii.,  and  then  continues  as  usual, 
viz.  Vehu  Rachum  (see  p.  179),  Shema\  Shemoneh 
^Esreh,  Kaddish,  Ps.  xci.,  "  And  a  redeemer  shall 
come"  (see  p.  156),  Kaddish.  Then  follows  a  long 
passage,  peculiar  to  this  service,  made  up  of 
numerous  passages  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
service  concludes  with  Ps.  cxxviii. 

The  Habdalah.  This  is  primarily  a  home  service, 
and  is  always  said  at  the  Conclusion  of  the  Sabbath, 
which  from  very  early  times,  long  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era,  was  celebrated  by  a  special 
meal,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  Inauguration  of  the 
Sabbath.  The  word  Habdalah  means  "Separation," 
i.e.  between  the  holy  Sabbath  and  the  ordinary  week- 
days. The  ceremony  marking  this  celebration  is 
interesting.  The  head  of  the  house  takes  a  cup  of 
wine  in  his  right  hand  and  utters  a  Benediction  over 
it  beginning  with  the  words:  "Behold,  God  is  my 
salvation";  it  is  made  up  from  other  citations  from 
the  Psalms  and  Isaiah,  and  concludes  with  the 
words :  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King 
of  the  universe,  who  createst  the  fruit  of  the   vine." 

^  These  Psalms  and  the  reading  from  Pirke  Aboth  are  not 
the  same  all  the  year  round. 

O   2 


iq6  rabbinical  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

Then  he  takes  spices,  and  says  over  them  :  "  Blessed 
art  Thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who 
Greatest  divers  kinds  of  spices."  Then  he  spreads  his 
hands  towards  the  lights,  saying :  "  Blessed  art  Thou, 
O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who  createst 
the  light  of  the  fire."  Finally,  he  takes  the  cup  once 
again  in  his  right  hand  and  says :  "  Blessed  art  Thou, 
O  Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  who  makest  a 
distinction  (lit.  who  separatest,  from  the  same  root  as 
Hahdalah)  between  holy  and  profane,  between  light 
and  darkness,  between  Israel  and  other  nations, 
between  the  seventh  day  and  the  six  working  days. 
Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  makest  a  distinction 
between  holy  and  profane."  After  this  a  concluding 
hymn  is  said :  "  May  He  who  maketh  a  distinction 
between  holy  and  profane  pardon  our  sins."  This 
hymn,  belonging  probably  to  the  eleventh  century, 
is  of  a  strongly  penitential  character,  and  is  main- 
tained by  some  to  have  been  originally  written  for 
the  concluding  service  of  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

The  Hahdalah  is  also  celebrated  in  the  synagogue 
as  part  of  the  service. 


XII 

THE   FESTIVAL   SERVICES 

The  three  great  Jewish  festivals,  Passover  (Pesach), 
Pentecost  (Shevuoth),  and  Tabernacles  (Succoth),  are 
known  as  the  "  Pilgrim  Festivals,"  called  in  Hebrew 
Regalim  (plural  of  the  word  for  "  foot "),  because  the 
pilgrims  went  up  to  Jerusalem  on  foot  to  celebrate 
them.^ 

^According  to  Ibn  Ezra  (a.d.  1092-1167).  "The  Rab- 
binic rule  was  that  every  pilgrim  should  walk  on  foot  at 
least  the  final  stage  of  the  journey  up  from  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem to  the  Temple,  deriving  the  rule  from  the  word  Regalijn 
(Mishnah,  Chagigah  i.  i)"  (Abrahams,  op.  cit.  p.  cxci). 


THE  FESTIVAL   SERVICES  197 

On  the  eve  of  festivals  the  service  is  a  somewhat 
shortened  form  of  that  said  on  Friday  afternoon 
preparatory  to  the  Sabbath.  The  other  festival 
services  are  as  on  the  Sabbath,  but  with  two  distin- 
guishing marks.  The  first  of  these  is  the  festival 
Shemoneh  'Esreh.  As  in  that  for  the  Sabbath,  this,  too, 
consists  of  seven  Benedictions,  of  which  the  fourth  is 
proper  to  the  festival ;  the  latter  runs  as  follows  (the 
italicised  words  denote  the  beginnings  of  the  different 
paragraphs) : 

"  T/wt^  hast  chosen  us  from  all  peoples  ;  Thou  hast  loved  us 
and  taken  pleasure  in  us,  and  hast  exalted  us  above  all  tongues  ; 
Thou  hast  sanctified  us  by  Thy  commandments,  and  brought 
us  near  unto  Thy  service,  O  our  King,  and  hast  called  us  by 
Thy  great  and  holy  Name. 

And  Thou  hast  give7i  us  in  love,  O  Lord  our  God,  appointed 
times  for  gladness,  festivals  and  seasons  for  joy  ;  this  day  of 
[at  Passover]  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  the  season  of  our 
freedom  ;  [at  Pefttecost']  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  season  of  the 
giving  of  our  Law  ;  ^  [at  Tabernacles]  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
the  season  of  our  gladness. 

Our  God,  and  God  of  our  fathers,  7nay  our  reme?nbrance  rise 
and  come  and  be  accepted  before  Thee,  with  the  remembrance 
of  our  Fathers,  of  Messiah  the  son  of  David,  Thy  servant,  of 
Jerusalem  Thy  holy  city,  and  of  all  Thy  people  the  house  of 
Israel,  bringing  deliverance  and  well-being,  grace,  loving- 
kindness  and  mercy,  life  and  peace  on  this  day  of  [according  to 
the  festival].  Remember  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  thereon  for  our 
well-being  ;  be  mindful  of  us  for  blessing,  and  save  us  unto 
life.  By  Thy  promise  of  salvation  and  mercy,  spare  us  and 
be  gracious  unto  us  ;  have  mercy  upon  us  and  save  us  ;  for'  our 
eyes  are  bent  upon  Thee,  because  Thou  art  a  gracious  and 
merciful  God  and  King. 

O  Lord  our  God,  bestow  upon  us  the  blessing  of  Thy  appointed 
times  for  life  and  peace,  for  joy  and  gladness,  even  as  Thou 
hast  been  pleased  to  promise  that  Thou  wouldst  bless  us 
Sanctify  us  by  Thy  commandments,  and  grant  our  portion  in 
Thy  law  ;  satisfy  us  with  Thy  goodness,  and  gladden  us  with 
Thy  salvation  ;  purify  our  hearts  to  serve  Thee  in  truth  ;  and 

^  ''  The  revelation  on  Sinai,  according  to  traditional  compu- 
tation, occurred  on  the  sixth  or  seventh  of  Sivan,  i.e.  on  the 
Feast  of  Weeks  "  (Abrahams,  op.  cit.  p.  cxcii). 


198  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

let  us  inherit,  O  Lord  our  God,  with  joy  and  gladness  Thy  holy 
appointed  times  ;  and  may  Israel,  who  hallow  Thy  name, 
rejoice  in  Thee.  Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  hallowest 
Israel  and  the  seasons." 

These  four  paragraphs  are  all  ancient ;  they  have 
undergone  some  unimportant  verbal  changes,  but  in 
substance  they  belong  at  least  to  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era.  They  did  not  find  a  place  in 
the  Liturgy  all  at  the  same  time,  and  they  are  not 
cited  in  the  Talmud  as  forming  one  connected  whole  ; 
each  was  originally  an  independent  piece.  Elbogen 
(pp.  cit.  p.  133)  points  out  that  where  they  are  cited 
in  the  Talmud  the  source  is  Babylonian,  but  that 
traces  of  a  Palestinian  recension  are  to  be  discerned 
in  the  tractate  Sopherim.  This  would  indicate  a  still 
greater  antiquity  for  them. 

Secondly,  there  is  a  special  Kiddush  for  festivals, 
in  order  that  a  specific  reference  to  the  festival  being 
celebrated  might  be  made  in  this  indispensable  Bene- 
diction. 

While  there  are  various  other  differences  according 
to  the  particular  festival  observed,  the  general  stnic- 
ture  of  all  the  festival  services  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
daily  Morning  Prayer.  The  same  applies  to  the 
New  Moon  and  New  Year  festivals,  also  the  Day 
of  Atonement  and  Chanukkah  ("  Dedication ")  and 
Purim  ("  Lots  "). 

XIII 

THE    DAY   OF   ATONEMENT   AND    OTHER    FAST-DAYS 

The  former  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  fast- 
days  of  the  synagogue.  Fast-days  in  the  Jewish  Church 
come  historically  under  two  categories  :  fasts  which 
were  inaugurated  as  some  special  occasion  required 
(see,  e.g.,  i  Kings  xxi.  9  ;  Joel  i.  14;  ii.  15),  and  those 
which  were  held  in  commemoration  of  some  tragic 
event  in  the  nation's  history.  It  is  only  the  latter 
which  were  regularly  observed  ;  and  of  these  the  four 


THE  DAY   OF  ATONEMENT  199 

Biblical  ones  mentioned  in  Zech.  viii.  19  are  still 
observed,  viz.  "  the  fast  of  the  fourth  month  ( =  Tam- 
muz),  of  the  fifth  month  (=  Ab),  of  the  seventh 
(=  Tishri),  and  of  the  tenth  month  (=Tebeth)"; 
these  were  inaugurated  during  the  Exile  in  memory 
of  events  connected  with  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  and  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.;  other  minor  fasts 
are  also  still  observed.  The  most  important  fast- 
days,  however,  are  those  included  in  the  penitential 
season  of  ten  days  with  which  the  Jewish  New  Year 
opens,  and  which  culminate  in  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. On  this  day  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh  has  special 
Benedictions  proper  to  the  season ;  these  are  too 
long  to  quote  here,  but  a  short  passage  may  be  cited 
in  order  to  show  how  the  special  subject  of  the  season 
is  brought  in :  ''  .  .  .  And  Thou  hast  given  us  in 
love,  O  Lord  our  God,  this  Day  of  Atonement  for 
pardon,  forgiveness,  and  atonement,  that  we  may 
obtain  pardon  thereon  for  all  our  iniquities  ;  an  holy 
convocation,  as  a  memorial  of  the  departure  from 
Egypt."  Confession  of  sin  and  penitential  prayers 
follow  ;  these  comprise  the  alphabetical  confessions 
'Ashamnu  ("  We  have  trespassed ")  and  ^Al  Chet 
("  For  the  sin  [which  we  have  committed]").  These 
are  both  ancient,  especially  the  latter,  parts  of  which 
''  point  to  a  period  during  which  sacrificial  rites  were 
still  performed  in  the  Temple,  or  shortly  after  their 
cessation.  That,  however,  alphabetical  confessions 
were  in  use  much  more  anciently  than  we  have  them 
liturgically  recorded  is  clear  from  the  Didache,  a  work 
which  belongs  to  the  first  century  and  bears  distinct 
traces  of  such  a  confession,  as  Rendel  Harris  has 
shown.  The  forms  in  our  Liturgy,  though  in  one 
sense  dating  from  the  Geonic  age,  may  go  back 
to  a  very  much  earlier  date."  ^  The  hymn  Abinu 
Malkenu  is  said  on  the  ten  days  (Sabbath  excepted) 
of  penitence. 

^  Abrahams,  op.  cit.  p.  cci, 


200  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

At  the  close  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  the  special 
prayer  called  Ne'ilah  is  said.  This  word  means 
"  shutting,"  in  reference  to  the  Temple  gates,  which 
were  closed  at  the  approach  of  sunset ;  at  this  time 
the  priests  pronounced  their  Blessing  upon  the  people 
in  ancient  days.  The  prayer  received  its  name  from 
this,  as  it  was  said  at  the  same  time,  viz.  at  the  close 
of  the  service,  which  lasts  all  day. 

Belonging  to  a  later  period  is  the  opening  service 
of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  held  on  the  preceding 
evening,  called  Kol  Nidre  ( =  "  All  vows ") ;  the 
name  comes  from  the  formula  of  remission  of  vows 
which  is  said  immediately  before  the  service.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Babylonian  Geonim  raised 
great  objections  to  Kol  Nidre,  it  has  been  incor- 
porated in  the  Liturgy  since  the  ninth  century. 
Originally  the  remission  of  vows  referred  only  to  the 
past  year ;  but  in  the  twelfth  century  it  was  made  to 
refer  to  the  coming  year.  The  abuses  which  this 
might  easily  bring  in  its  train  will  be  obvious  ;  but, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  remission  refers  only  to 
obligations  in  reference  to  a  person  individually,  not 
in  reference  to  a  second  person  ;  and  these  are  only 
in  respect  of  ritual  duties,  and  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  affairs  of  ordinary  life. 

One  other  special  ritual  act  on  this  day  is  the 
blowing  of  the  Shophar  ("  ram's  horn  "J,  which  is 
sounded  to  mark  the  close  of  the  solemn  fast-day ; 
this  is  a  very  ancient  custom  ;  it  used  also  to  be  blown, 
according  to  Josephus  {Bell.  IV.  ix.  12),  on  the 
termination  of  the  Sabbath,  and,  according  to  the 
Mishnah,  it  was  also  blown  to  announce  the  coming 
of  the  Sabbath.  The  Shophar  is  also  sounded  on 
New  Year's  Day. 

We  have  only  drawn  attention  to  specific  points 
proper  to  the  services  for  the  Day  of  Atonement ;  the 
rest  of  the  services  follow  the  lines  of  the  ordinary 
daily  services. 


THE  BURIAL  SERVICE  201 


.  XIV 

THE  BURIAL  SERVICE  ;  PRAYERS  FOR  THE 
DEPARTED 

The  study  of  the  mourning  customs  among  the 
Israelites  and  later  Jews  leads  to  the  conviction  that 
the  majority  of  them  were  practised  for  the  sake  of 
the  living,  not  for  the  benefit  of  the  departed.  Some 
of  these  customs  are  to  be  explained  as  protective 
measures  against  what  was  believed  to  be  the  danger 
of  hostile  action  of  the  spirits  of  the  departed  towards 
the  living.  But  this  cannot  be  said  of  all  those 
customs ;  such  an  act,  for  example,  as  that  described 
in  2  Mace.  xii.  43-45  (to  be  quoted  presently)  is 
obviously  intended  to  be  for  the  benefit  of  the 
departed.  It  must  be  acknowledged — and  it  is 
acknowledged  by  some  at  least  of  the  leading 
authorities  on  the  subject  ^ — that  some  of  these 
customs  do  not,  even  in  their  oldest  known  form,  pre- 
suppose the  slightest  fear  of  hostile  action  on  the  part 
of  the  dead.  As  long  as  the  old  Sheol  belief  existed 
anything  in  the  shape  of  prayers  for  the  departed 
was  impossible,  for  two  reasons  :  first,  there  was  not, 
according  to  that  belief,  anybody  to  pray  for,  so  that 
the  idea  could  not  have  entered  into  people's  heads  ; 
and,  secondly,  there  was  nobody  to  pray  to,  for, 
according  to  the  old  Sheol  belief,  God  was  only  con- 
cerned with  men  while  living. 

With  the  rise  of  a  belief  in  the  resurrection  it  is 
obvious  that  men's  thoughts  on  the  subject  must  have 
undergone  a  change,  likewise  in  two  directions. 
While  they  could  not  be  expected  to  take  much 
interest  in  a  more  or  less  impersonal  shade,  it  was  very 
different  if  a  departed  loved  one  were  firmly  believed 
to  be  living  after  death,  and  living  in  a  fuller  sense 

1  e.g.    Marti,   Torge,   and   others  ;  cp.   also   Stade,  Biblische 
Theologie  des  alten  Testamenfes,  i.  pp.  I38ff. 


202  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

than  ever  before ;  the  realisation  that  he  was  still  living 
necessitated  continued  interest  in  him  ;  if  that 
realisation  is  in  any  sense  real,  then  a  person's  interest 
in  a  loved  one  cannot  cease  merely  because  his  life  is 
now  unbounded,  while  before  it  was  restricted.  Belief 
in  the  resurrection,  then,  necessitated  interest  in  the 
departed.  Concurrently  with  this  it  was  also 
inevitable  that  with  a  belief  in  the  resurrection  an 
enhanced  doctrine  of  God  must  have  arisen  ;  for 
while,  according  to  the  old  Sheol  belief,  God's  interest 
in  man  was  restricted  to  his  life  here  on  earth,  when 
the  life  of  man  was  believed  to  continue  hereafter 
God's  interest  in  him  could  no  longer  be  restricted  to 
what  was,  comparatively  speaking,  a  moment  of  his 
existence.  In  effect,  Christ  refers  to  this  in  saying : 
"  God  is  not  a  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the  living  "  ; 
that  closed  the  mouth  of  His  adversaries,  for  it  was 
their  beHef,  too,  though  they  failed  to  realise  its 
implications.  These  parallel  thoughts,  then,  con- 
cerning God  and  man  in  what  we  call  the  Hereafter 
led  to  prayers  for  the  departed  among  the  Jews.  One 
of  the  earliest  notices,  perhaps  the  earliest  known  one, 
is  found  in  2  Mace.  xii.  43-45,  where  it  is  said  that 
Judas  Maccabseus  offered  sacrifices  and  prayers  for 
the  departed  :  "  And  he  made  a  collection,  man  by 
man,  to  the  sum  of  two  thousand  drachmas  of  silver  ; 
and  he  sent  this  to  Jerusalem  for  a  sin-offering,  acting 
therein  well  and  honourably,  for  he  was  bearing  in 
mind  the  resurrection.  For  if  he  were  not  expecting 
that  the  fallen  would  rise  again,  it  would  have  been 
superfluous  and  senseless  to  pray  for  the  dead.  And 
if,  doing  this,  he  was  looking  for  the  splendour  of  the 
gracious  reward  laid  up  for  them  that  have  fallen 
asleep  in  godliness,  holy  and  pious  was  the  thought." 
Though  this  is,  doubtless,  unhistorical,  it  none  the 
less  reflects  the  tendency  of  thought  and  practice  at 
the  time  when  the  book  was  written,  probably  just 
before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  as  there 


THE  BURIAL  SERVICE  203 

are  distinct   indications    that   Philo   was    acquainted 
with  it. 

The  study  of  the  history  of  the  Jewish  Liturgy 
shows  that,  while  the  principle  of  development  in 
external  form  has  throughout  the  ages  been  acted 
upon,  the  essential  original  elements  have  been 
maintained.  This  is  true  of  both  the  Sephardic  and 
Ashkenazic  forms  of  the  Liturgy.  In  both  of  these 
prayers  for  the  departed  are  used  ;  the  form  of  these 
has  undoubtedly  been  subjected  to  modification,  but 
the  principle  of  offering  them  has  certainly  been  acted 
upon  ever  since  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
became  a  dogma  of  Judaism  ;  and  this  took  place 
long  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  We 
have  already  referred  to  "  Mourner's  Kaddish "  and 
"  Renewal  Kaddish  "  (see  pp.  1 84  f.  above)  and  their 
significance  in  the  present  connexion.  We  turn  now 
to  the  Jewish  Burial  Service,  where  this  short  prayer 
is  uttered  when  the  coffin  is  being  lowered  into  the 
grave  :  "  May  he  [or  she]  come  to  his  [or  her]  place 
in  peace  "  ;  but  more  striking  is  the  prayer  which  is 
offered  up  in  the  house  of  the  mourners  ;  one  or  tivo 
extracts  from  this  may  be  given  :  "  O  Lord  and  King, 
who  art  full  of  compassion  .  .  .  receive,  we  beseech 
Thee,  in  Thy  great  loving-kindness  the  soul  of  [the 
name  of  the  departed  is  then  mentioned],  who  hath 
been  gathered  unto  his  [or  her]  people.  Have  mercy 
upon  him,  pardon  all  his  transgressions.^  .  .  .  O 
shelter  his  soul  in  the  shadow  of  Thy  wings.  Make 
known  to  him  the  path  of  life  ;  in  Thy  presence  is 
fullness  of  joy  ;  at  Thy  right  hand  are  pleasures  for 
evermore.  Vouchsafe  unto  him  of  the  abounding 
happiness  that  is  treasured  up  for  the  righteous.  .  .  ." 

^  cp,  Pirke  de  Rabbi  Eliezer^  xxxix.  (end),  where  Isaac  prays 
for  the  dead  Esau  thus  ;  "  Sovereign  of  all  the  universe,  let 
mercy  be  shown  to  this  wicked  one,  for  he  had  not  learnt  all 
the  precepts  of  the  Torah"  (Gerald  Friedlander's  edition,  p.  310 
[1916]). 


204  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

That  is  taken  from  the  Liturgy  of  the  Ashkenazic 
Jews  ;  the  other  division  of  the  Jews,  the  Sephardim, 
has  its  own  Liturgy,  in  which  much  is  retained 
which  finds  no  place  in  the  Ashkenazic  Ritual.  It 
will  be  worth  while,  in  conclusion,  to  turn  to  this  other 
Liturgy,  for  the  Sephardic  Jews  have  in  their  Liturgy 
elaborate,  and  in  some  cases  beautiful,  prayers  for  the 
departed.  "  In  substance  many  of  them  are  believed  to 
date  back  to  the  time  of  HiWel— circa  30  B.C.-A.D.  10 — 
and  they  contain  passages  of  great  beauty.  They  are 
also  of  interest  as  representing  at  least  the  type  of 
prayer  for  the  dead  which  must  have  been  familiar 
to  the  earliest  circles  of  Jewish  Christians."  ^  The 
following  are  a  few  examples  taken  from  the 
Sephardic  Ritual  in  present  use  :  "  Have  mercy  upon 
him,  we  beseech  Thee,  O  Lord,  Thou  living  God  and 
King  of  the  universe  ;  for  with  Thee  is  the  fountain  of 
life.  And  continually  may  he  walk  in  the  land  of  life, 
and  may  his  soul  rest  in  the  bond  of  life."  Again  : 
"  May  the  Gracious  One,  in  the  abundance  of  His 
mercy,  forgive  his  transgressions  ;  may  his  good  deeds 
be  before  His  eyes,  and  may  he  be  near  unto  God 
with  all  His  faithful  ones  and  walk  before  Thee  in  the 
land  of  life.  And  continually  may  he  walk  in  the 
land  of  life,  and  may  his  soul  rest  in  the  bond  of  life." 
These  are  two  of  seven  sentences  which  are  chanted 
during  a  procession  round  the  bier ;  each  ends  with 
the  refrain  :  "  And  continually  may  he  walk  in  the 
land  of  life,  and  may  his  soul  rest  in  the  bond  of  life." 
The  two  just  quoted  are  addressed  to  God  ;  others  are 
the  expression  of  prayer,  but  they  are  addressed  to  the 
departed,  thus  :  "  The  gates  of  heaven  mayest  thou 
find  opened,  and  the  city  of  peace  mayest  thou  see, 
and  the  dwellings  of  confidence  and  angels  of  peace 
to  meet  thee  with  joy  ;  and  may  the  high-priest  stand 
to  receive  thee  ;  and  thou,  go  thou  to  the  end,  for  thou 
shalt  rest  and  rise  up  again.  And  continually  may  he 
1  Miss  Damp! er  in  Church  and  Synagogue^  xi.  y^. 


THE  BURIAL  SERVICE  205 

walk  in  the  land  of  life,  and  may  his  soul  rest  in  the 
bond  ('  bundle ' ;  see  i  Sam.  xxv.  29)  of  life."  But  the 
fullest  and  most  beautiful  prayer,  which  is  well  worth 
quoting  in  full,  is  that  which  is  offered  up  after  the 
committal ;  this  prayer  is  called  the  Hashkahah  (from 
the  root  meaning  "  to  lie  down "),  and  it  is  said  in 
what  is  the  Jewish  equivalent  of  our  cemetery  chapel. 
This  prayer  is  as  follows  : 

"  May  the  repose  which  is  prepared  in  the  celestial  abode, 
under  the  wings  of  the  Divine  presence  (/.<?.  the  Shekinah)  in 
the  high  place  of  the  holy  and  pure — who  shine  and  are 
resplendent  as  the  bright  light  of  the  firmament — with  a 
renewal  of  strength,  a  forgiveness  of  trespasses,  a  removal  of 
transgressions,  an  approach  of  salvation,  compassion  and  favour 
from  Him  that  sitteth  enthroned  on  high,  and  also  a  goodly 
portion  in  the  life  to  come,  be  the  lot,  dwelling,  and  the  resting- 
place  of  the  soul  of  our  departed  brother  (to  whom  may  God 
grant  peace  in  Paradise),  who  departed  from  this  world 
according  to  the  will  of  God,  the  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth. 
May  the  supreme  King  of  Kings,  through  His  infinite  mercy, 
have  mercy,  pity,  and  compassion  upon  him.  May  the  supreme 
King  of  Kings,  through  His  infinite  mercy,  hide  him  under  the 
shadow  of  His  wings,  and  under  the  protection  of  His  tent; 
to  behold  the  fair  beauty  of  the  Lord,  and  to  wait  in  His 
temple  ;  may  He  raise  him  at  the  end  of  the  days,  and  cause 
him  to  drink  of  the  stream  of  His  delights.  May  He  cause  his 
soul  to  be  bound  up  in  the  bond  of  life,  and  his  rest  to  be 
glorious.  May  the  Lord  be  his  inheritance,  and  grant  him 
peace  ;  and  may  his  repose  be  in  peace,  as  it  is  written  :  '  He 
shall  come  in  peace  ;  they  shall  rest  in  their  beds  ;  everyone 
walking  in  his  uprightness.'  May  he,  and  all  the  people  of 
Israel,  who  slumber  in  the  dust,  be  included  in  mercy  and 
forgiveness.     May  this  be  His  will,  and  let  us  say,  Amen." 

This  Hashkahah  prayer  is  repeated  every  evening 
during  the  week  of  mourning,  and  also,  like  the 
"  Mourner's  Kaddish  "  in  the  Ashkenazic  Liturgy,  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  death. 

A  high  authority  on  Jewish  belief  and  practice,  the 
late  Rabbi  Singer,  writes  as  follows  on  this  subject : 
"  Unless  we  are  prepared  to  maintain  that  at  his  death 
the  fate  of  man  is  fixed  irretrievably  and  for  ever,  that 


2o6  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

therefore  the  sinner  who  rejected  much  of  God's  love 
during  a  brief  lifetime  has  lost  all  of  it  eternally, 
prayer  for  the  peace  and  salvation  of  the  departed 
soul  commends  itself  as  one  of  the  highest  religious 
obligations."  ^ 

Many  interesting  subjects  in  connexion  with  the 
Jewish  Liturgy  have  not  been  mentioned  ;  our  object 
has,  however,  been  to  deal  only  with  the  most  central 
and  important  parts. 

^  Lectures  and  Addresses^  p.  72. 


PART   IV 

THE   MEDIAEVAL    LITERATURE 


PART   IV 

THE   MEDIEVAL  LITERATURE 

[Literature  :  The  following  works  of  a  general  and  com- 
prehensive nature  may  here  be  mentioned  :  J.  W.  Etheridge, 
Jerusalem  and  Tiberias,  Sura  ajui  Cordova:  A  Survey  of  the 
Religious  a7id  Scholastic  Literature  of  the  Jews  (London,  1856)  ; 
M.  Steinschneider,  y^wzj-/^  Literature  (London,  1857);  Winter 
und  Wiinsche,  Die  Jiidische  Literatur  seit  Abschluss  des  Kanons^ 
3  vols.  (Berlin,  1897)  ;  Zunz,  Die  gottesdientslichen  Vortrdge  der 
Juden,  2nd  ed.  1892  ;  Israel  Abrahams,  A  Short  History  of 
Jewish  Literature  (London,  1906).  See  also  JE  under  the 
names  cited.  A  useful  bibliographical  conspectus  is  contained 
in  Strackand  Siegfried's  Lehrbuch  der  neu-hebrdischen  Sprache^ 
pp.  93-1 32 4-^ (^rm  by  Strack)  :   1884.] 

I 

INTRODUCTORY 

The  transitional  period  which  connects  the  earlier 
Talmudic  with  the  mediaeval  literature  is  marked  by 
the  era  of  the  Geonim.  The  title  Gaon  (plur.  Geonini)} 
which  means  Excellency,  was  given  to  the  heads  of 
the  two  Babylonian  Academies  of  Sura  and  Pumbe- 
ditha,  who  presided  over  the  schools  which  had 
completed  the  work  of  fixing  the  text  of  the  Talmud 
in  its  final  form.  The  period  of  the  Geonim  dates, 
according  to  Bacher,  from  the  year  A.D.  589,  when 
Mar  Rab  Chanan  of  Iskiya  became  Gaon  of  Pumbe- 
ditha.  The  last  Gaon  of  Sura  (Samuel  b.  Chophni) 
died  in  1034 ;  the  last  Gaon  of  Pumbeditha  (Hai) 
died  in  1038.  Thus  "the  activity  of  the  Geonim 
covers  a  period  of  nearly  450   years."     During   this 

1  Probably  derived  from  Ps.  xlvii.  5  (E.V.  4),  ge'on  Ya^akob, 
"  The  excellency  of  Jacob." 

200  P 


210  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

period  the  centres  of  Jewish  learning  were  in  Baby- 
lonia and  Persia, 

The  Jewish  communities  in  these  regions  enjoyed 
a  large  measure  of  independence,  during  the  Geonic 
period,  under  their  own  political  head  known  as  the 
"  Exiliarch."  Though  the  Geonim  of  both  Academies 
went  every  year  to  pay  formal  homage  to  the 
Exiliarch,  and  though  the  latter  was  associated  with 
them  in  the  formal  promulgation  of  specially  impor- 
tant decrees,  the  Geonim  seem  to  have  occupied  a 
position  of  practically  complete  independence.  The 
Gaon  of  Sura  ranked  above  the  Gaon  of  Pumbeditha. 
This  apparently  was  due  to  the  fact  that,  during  the 
period  of  the  Amoraim,  Sura  had  been  the  principal 
seat  of  Jewish  learning,  first  under  its  founder  Rab 
and  his  pupil  Huna  (third  century),  and  later  under 
Ashi  (died  427).  During  the  Geonic  period,  too, 
Sura  was  most  prominent,  the  most  famous  of  the 
Geonim,  Saadya  (tenth  century),  having  presided 
over  the  Academy  of  Sura. 

"  The  importance  of  the  Geonim  in  Jewish  history,"  says 
Bacher,  "  is  due,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  fact  that  for  a  number 
of  centuries  they  occupied  .a  unique  position  as  the  heads 
of  their  respective  schools,  and  as  the  recognised  authorities  of 
Judaism.  Their  influence  probably  extended  chiefly  to  the 
Mohammedan  countries,  especially  Northern  Africa  and  Spain  ; 
but  in  the  course  of  time  the  Jews  of  Christian  Europe  also 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  Babylonian  schools.  It  was 
for  this  reason  that  the  Babylonian  Talmud  came  to  be 
recognised  as  the  basis  for  religio-legal  decisions  throughout 
Jewry  and  as  the  principal  object  of  study.  Even  the  facilities 
offered  for  such  study  to  the  Diaspora  were  due  to  the  Geonim, 
since  the  Geonic  exposition  of  the  Talmud,  with  regard  to  both 
text  and  contents,  was,  directly  or  indirectly,  the  chief  aid  in 
comprehending  the  Talmud.  The  importance  of  the  period  of 
the  Geonim  for  the  history  of  Judaism  is  further  enhanced  by 
the  fact  that  the  new  Jewish  science,  which  steadily  developed 
side  by  side  with  Talmudic  studies,  was  created  by  a  Gaon,  and 
that  the  same  Gaon,  Saadya,  effectively  opposed  the  dis- 
integrating influence  of  Karaism.''^ 

1  Article  "  Gaon  "  in  JE  v.  570. 


INTRODUCTORY  211 

Of  their  literary  work  a  considerable  portion 
has  not  survived.  They  had  much  to  do  with  the 
adaptation  of  the  principles  of  the  Talmud  to  the 
changing  social  conditions  of  the  Jews  of  their  time ; 
they  improved  educational  methods,  and  deeply  in- 
fluenced the  Liturgy. 

One  of  the  earliest  literary  works  of  the  Geonic 
period  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  Sheiltoth 
(=  "  Questiones ")  of  Achai,  composed  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  and  containing  about 
two  hundred  homilies  on  the  Pentateuch.  About  870 
the  Gaon  Amram  compiled  a  Siddur,  or  prayer  book, 
which  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  for  our  know- 
ledge of  the  Jewish  Liturgy.  The  famous  Saadya 
will  come  before  us  as  a  grammarian  and  exegete. 
The  last  of  the  Geonim,  Samuel  b.  Chophni  and  Hai, 
were  also  authors  of  many  works  on  Bible  and 
Talmud,  and  Hai  was  a  poet. 

The  most  characteristic  branch  of  their  literary 
activity,  however,  is  to  be  seen  in  their  responsa,  or 
letters.  The  advice  and  guidance  of  these  famous 
teachers  were  sought  from  all  parts  of  the  Jewish 
world  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  religious  and  literary. 

"  Amid  the  growing  complications  of  ritual  law,  a  desire  was 
felt  for  terse  prescriptions,  clear-cut  decisions,  and  rules  of 
conduct.  The  imperfections  of  study  outside  of  Persia,  again, 
made  it  essential  to  apply  to  the  Geonim  for  authoritative 
expositions  of  difficult  passages  in  the  Bible  and  the  Talmud. 
To  all  such  inquiries  the  Geonim  sent  responses  in  the  form  of 
letters,  sometimes  addressed  to  individual  correspondents, 
sometimes  to  communities,  or  groups  of  communities."^ 

These  letters  were  later  collected  into  volumes  and 
treatises,  though  many  were  never  included  in  such 
collections.  Numerous  examples  have  come  to  light 
(some  not  yet  published)  in  the  collection  of  Genizah 
fragments  now  in  Cambridge. 

^  I.  Abrahams,  Short  History  of  Jewish  Literature^  p.  40. 

P   2 


212  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

The  responsa  form  a  vast  literature  of  many  thousands  of 
documents.  The  beginnings  of  this  Hterature  date  from  a  much 
earher  time  than  the  Geonic  epoch.  An  active  correspondence, 
in  the  form  of  letters  and  replies  to  questions,  was  carried  on 
between  Palestine  and  T3abylonia  at  the  end  of  the  third 
century  A.D.  But  the  Geonic  responsa  mark  a  definite  develop- 
ment in  literary  form  and  contents.  In  these  responsa  the 
Geonim  used  at  first  Aramaic  (the  language  of  the  Gemara), 
but  later  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  After  the  period  of  the  Geonim 
the  responsa  literature  underwent  further  development  and 
became  widely  diffused  (the  Spanish,  French,  German,  and 
Itahan  schools).  This  hterature  has  gone  on  in  unbroken 
continuity  down  to  the  present  time.  The  technical  desig- 
nation of  it  is  She^eloth  u-Teshuboth  ("Questions  and  Answers") 
An  interesting  survey  of  the  whole  literature  is  given  in  JE 
in  the  article  "  She^eloth  u-7^eshubot"  xi,  240-250. 

In  the  following  pages  it  will  be  convenient  to 
group  our  survey  of  the  mediaeval  literature  under 
the  following  heads :  Grammar  and  Exegesis  (11)  ; 
The  Mystical  Literature  (iii) ;  Phi'osophy  and  Ethics 
(iv) ;  The  MedicBval  Poetry  (v) ;  Some  other  Forms  of 
Literature  (vi). 

II 

GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS 

[See  Bacher,  Die  hebrdische  Sprachwissenschaft  and  Die  Bibel- 
exegese  in  Winter  und  Wiinsche,  op.  cit.  ii.  135-342;  the  art. 
Grammar  (Hebrew)  in  JE  ;  numerous  specimens  of  mediseval 
Jewish  exegesis  are  given  in  Neubauer  and  Driver,  The  LIW^ 
Chapter  of  Isaiah  according  to  Jewish  Interpreters  (2  vols,  text 
and  transl.  1871).] 

The  rise  of  a  sound  and  scientific  exegesis  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  was  determined,  as  will  be  seen^ 
by  the  growth  and  development  of  philological 
studies.  The  two  branches  of  learning  are  inti- 
mately connected,  and  in  the  result  an  important 
exegetical  literature  was  developed,  which  is  a 
characteristic  product  of  mediaeval  Judaism.  But 
before  this  can  be  traced  something  must  be  said 
about  the  earlier  type  of  exegesis  which  preceded  it. 


GRAMMAR   AND  EXEGESIS  213 

The  earliest  form  of  Scriptural  exegesis  is  the  Mid- 
rashic^  The  whole  of  this  vast  literature  embodies 
an  immense  wealth  of  exegetic  material,  largely  of  a 
traditional  character,  which  has  grown  up  in  the 
course  of  centuries. 

In  this  connexion  the  development  of  the  Halakic 
Midrash  exercised  an  important  influence  op  Scrip- 
tural exegesis.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Rabbinical 
teachers  found  it  necessary  to  supply  a  Scriptural 
basis  for  the  expanding  Halakah,  there  was  developed 
comparatively  early  (in  the  time  of  the  elder  Hillel) 
a  system  of  hermeneutic  rules,  seven  in  number — 
later  expanded  into  thirteen — under  the  influence 
of  which  a  highly  artificial  type  of  Scriptural  exe- 
gesis was  developed.  It  was  Akiba  who  pressed  the 
view  that  every  detail  of  the  sacred  text,  even  the 
minutest,  was  of  incomparable  importance.  Nothing 
was  to  be  regarded  as  insignificant  or  without. special 
meaning;  hence  everything  in  the  text  was  to  become 
the  subject  of  interpretation.^  Akiba  successfully 
founded  a  school  of  exegesis,  based  on  these  principles, 
which  was  influential  in  the  post-Hadrianic  epoch.  One 
of  his  pupils,  Eliezer  the  son  of  the  Galilean  Rabbi  Jose, 
formulated  thirty-two  rules  for  Haggadic  exegesis. 

It  was  the  latter  type  of  exegesis  that  was  dominant 
in  the  Midrashic  literature.  Here  the  Haggadic  exe- 
gesis had  full  scope.  It  dealt  with  the  text  of  the 
Bible  with  great  freedom,  often  interpreting  it  in 
a  way  that  seems  remote  from  the  simple  and  natural 
meaning  of  the  original  words.  Not  that  the  plain 
and  strict  meaning  of  the   text   is   always   ignored. 

^  For  the  meaning  of  the  term  Midrash,  and  the  Midrashic 
literature,  see  pp.  57  ff.  above. 

2  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  it  was  an  eminent  Halakist, 
R.  Ishmael  (second  century  A.D.),  who  maintained  the  view 
(against  Akiba),  which  was  to  have  an  important  influence  on 
later  Jewish  exegesis,  that  the  language  of  Scripture  is  to  be 
interpreted  by  the  standards  of  human  speech,  and  not  to  be 
unduly  and  artificially  pressed. 


214  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

The  "  Peshat,"  as  it  is  termed,^  i.e.  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  text,  is  often  referred  to  and  discussed,  and  in 
many  cases  with  fine  insight  and  sound  linguistic 
knowledge.  But  this  is  entirely  overbalanced  by 
the  mass  of  purely  Haggadic  exposition.  "  In  the 
Halakic  as  well  as  in  the  Haggadic  exegesis  the 
expounder  endeavoured  not  so  much  to  seek  the 
original  meaning  of  the  text  as  to  find  authority  in 
some  Biblical  passage  for  the  concepts  and  ideas,  the 
rules  of  conduct  and  teachings,  for  which  he  wished 
to  have  a  Biblical  foundation.  To  this  were  added, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  belief  that  the  words  of 
the  Bible  had  many  meanings,  and,  on  the  other, 
the  importance  attached  to  the  smallest  portion,  the 
slightest  peculiarity  of  the  text  ;  hence  the  exegesis 
of  the  Midrash  strayed  further  and  further  away  from 
a  natural  and  common-sense  interpretation."^ 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  Midrash  is 
essentially  homiletical  in  tendency.  It  aims  at 
religious  edification  rather  than  scientific  investi- 
gation of  the  meaning  of  the  text.  As  such  it  was 
necessarily  one-sided,  and  sooner  or  later  a  reaction 
was  bound  to  set  in  against  its  almost  exclusive 
predominance.  The  elements  for  this  already  existed 
in  the  distinction  drawn  between  the  "  Peshat "  and 
the  "  Derash,"  and  also  in  the  attitude  of  opposition 
taken  up  by  R.  Ishmael  and  his  followers  against 
the  school  of  Akiba.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
Ishmael  insisted  that  the  language  of  Scripture  is  to 
be  interpreted  naturally,  in  accordance  with  the  stan- 
dards that  apply  to  human  speech,  and  ought  not  to 
be  pressed  unduly  and  artificially  in  detail.  Ishmael  is 
even  reputed  to  have  exclaimed  once,  in  rejecting  an 
exposition  of  Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos  :  "  Truly  you  say 

1  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  "Peshat"  is  carefully  and 
deliberately  distinguished  from  the  "  Derash"  (^-r),  i.e.  the  free 
Haggadic  exposition,  especially  by  the  Babylonian  teachers. 

2  JE  ill.  164  {s.v.  "Bible  Exegesis"). 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  215 

to  Scripture  :  Be  silent,  while  I  am  expounding."^  It 
was  the  Babylonian  Amoraim  who  first  used  the  ex- 
pression "  Peshat "  to  designate  the  primary  sense  in 
contradistinction  to"Derash,"  the  Midrashic  exegesis. 
It  was  in  Babylonia  also  that  the  important  prin- 
ciple was  laid  down  that  the  Haggadic  exegesis  could 
not  annul  the  primary  sense.  These  distinctions 
were  later  destined  to  exercise  a  determining  influ- 
ence in  the  development  of  Jewish  exegesis.  Another 
factor  that  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  closer  and 
more  literal  exposition  of  the  Biblical  text  was  the 
labours  of  the  Masoretic  scholars.  Though  great 
care  had  always  been  lavished  on  preserving  a  correct 
Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  by 
the  Scribes,  this  branch  of  learning  received  a  great 
impetus  in  the  seventh  century,  when  vowel-signs 
were  introduced.  Henceforward  Masoretic  studies 
steadily  developed,  and  the  body  of  Masoretic 
tradition — all  concerned  with  the  exact  determination 
and  preservation  of  the  Biblical  text — steadily  grew 
for  centuries.^  Such  activities  must  obviously  have 
contributed  largely  to  the  more  exact  exegesis  of  the 
Bible  which  gradually  grew  up.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  part  in  bringing  this  about  must  be 
assigned  to  the  Karaites — themselves  keen  gram- 
marians and  textual  scholars — who  boldly  challenged 
the  claims  of  the  current  exegetical  tradition,  and, 
indeed,  the  authority  of  Rabbinical  tradition  gene- 
rally, and  insisted  that  the  sole  fount  of  authority  for 
the  religious  life  was  to  be  found  in  the  plain  text  of 
Scripture.  Founded  in  the  eighth  century  by  Anan, 
this  sect,  which  has  lasted  to  the  present  day,  has 
remained  only  a  comparatively  small  and  heretical 
branch  of  Judaism  ;  but  it  has,  by  reaction,  exercised 
a  permanent  influence  on  the  development  of  exe- 
gesis in   the    main    body   of  orthodox   Judaism.     A 

^  Cited  from  the  Sifra  on  Lev.  xiii.  49  mJE^  ibid. 
2  The  Masora  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  1525. 


2i6  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

century  and  a  half  after  the  rise  of  the  sect  the  great 
Jewish  exegete  Saadya  (892-942)  inaugurated  a  new 
epoch— "the  period  of  the  Teshat"— in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Engaged  in  con- 
troversy with  the  Karaites,  he  was  yet  profoundly 
influenced  by  them.  A  great  scholar,  and  the  creator 
of  Hebrew  philology,  Saadya  also  occupied  the  most 
authoritative  position  of  his  time  in  Jewry  as  the 
Gaon  of  Sura,  and  was  able,  in  virtue  of  his  unique 
opportunities  as  well  as  of  his  own  great  personal 
qualifications,  to  bring  the  large  majority  of  orthodox 
Jews,  who  still  held  to  tradition,  into  new  paths  in 
the  matter  of  Bible  study.  Saadya,  in  fact,  put 
Jewish  Biblical  exegesis  on  a  new  line  of  develop- 
ment. His  most  important  work,  the  Arabic  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures,  aims  at  giving,  not  a  bare 
reproduction  of  the  original  text,  but  a  rational 
exegesis  embodied  in  a  free  translation.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  other  important  works,  some  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us  only  in  fragmentary  form. 
The  principles  which  he  applied  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  Bible,  and  which  exercised  a  profound  influence 
on  the  later  exegesis,  may  be  summarised  as  follows : 

(i)  His  fundamental  postulate  is  that  reason  is  the 
true  basis  of  all  exegesis,  and  in  accordance  with  this 
principle  "the  exposition  of  the  text  must  contain 
nothing  that  is  obscure  or  that  contradicts  logical 
thought."  He  does  not  deny  the  divine  origin  or  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Bible ;  and  the  miracles  he 
thinks  serve  as  witnesses  to  the  veracity  of  the 
Prophets,  and  of  Scripture  generally.  At  the  same 
time  these  postulates  are  not  irreconcilable  with  the 
claims  of  reason  ;  anthropomorphic  language  about 
God  is  regarded  as  figurative. 

(2)  Besides  the  authority  of  reason,  the  collateral 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  themselves  is  recognised 
as  a  source  of  sound  exegesis  (parallel  passages  and 
illustrative  texts). 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  217 

(3)  He  also  recognises,  to  some  extent,  the  authority 
of  tradition  in  his  Bible  exegesis,  so  far  as  this  is 
compatible  with  the  paramount  claims  of  a  rational 
exegesis. 

The  last  of  the  Geonim,  Hai  (died  1038),  who  was 
a  great  Talmudist,  and  the  author  of  a  famous  lexicon 
also  devoted  himself  to  Bible  exegesis  (he  wrote  a 
commentary  on  Job).  He  is  cited  by  Kimhi  in  his 
commentary.  But  Saadya's  true  successors,  both  in 
philological  and  exegetical  study,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  great  Jewish  schools  of  North  Africa  and  Spain. 
Kairwan,  in  North  Tunis,  became  one  of  these  centres, 
and  was  already  growing  in  importance  even  during 
Saadya's  lifetime.  It  was  here  that  Dunash  ibn  Tamim  ^ 
(tenth  century)  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the 
comparative  study  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic  as  an  aid  to 
Biblical  exegesis.  Another  North  African  earlier 
still,  Judah  ibn  Koreish,  had  compiled  a  work  in  which 
Arabic,  Aramaic,  and  New-Hebrew  are  systematically 
compared  with  Biblical  Hebrew.  Judah  also  recom- 
mended in  this  connexion  the  study  of  the  Targum 
(Aramaic).  It  was,  however,  in  the  Spanish  schools, 
where  Hebrew  philology  was  most  fruitfully  studied 
and  developed  from  the  middle  of  the  tenth  to  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  that  the  foundations 
of  the  later  mediaeval  exegesis  were  laid.  "  From  the 
time  of  Hasdai  ibn  Shaprut  to  that  of  Samuel  ibn 
Nagdela  (second  half  of  the  tenth  to  the  first  half  of 
the  eleventh  century)  eminent  and  gifted  scholars  vied 
with  one  another  in  placing  the  science  of  Hebrew 
grammar  on  a  firm  basis — a  basis  that  has  not  been 
overthrown  even  by  the  philology  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  They  also  developed  Hebrew  lexicography 
to  a  point  far  in  advance  of  all  preceding  endeavours. 
Menahem  ben  Saruk's  dictionary ;  Dunash  ibn  Labrat's 

^  Not  to  be  confounded  with  Dunash  ben  Labrat  (also  born 
in  North  Africa).  Ben  Labrat  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Dunash  ibn  Tarnim, 


2i8  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

critical  work  ;  Judah  ben  David  Hayyuj's  work  that 
came  like  a  revelation  ;  Abulwalid's  critical  work  ; 
the  literary  controversy  between  him  and  Samuel  ibn 
Nagdela  ;  the  writings  of  both  as  well  as  of  others 
belonging  to  their  circle  ;  and,  finally,  Abulwalid's 
chief  work,  composed  of  a  grammatical  and  lexical 
part — all  these  works  mark  the  development  of  the 
philologic  literature  in  Spain.  Those  of  Hayyuj  and 
Abulwalid  especially  furnished  a  firm  basis  for  a  Bible 
exegesis  that,  on  its  linguistic  side  at  least,  was  free 
from  gross  errors  and  mere  guesswork."  ^  Abulwalid's 
great  work,  which  is  a  combination  of  a  grammar  and 
a  lexicon,^  is  especially  rich  in  exegetic  material.  It 
should  be  added  that  these  scholars,  though,  of  course, 
they  knew  Hebrew,  used  as  their  ordinary  medium 
the  Arabic  language. 

Two  eminent  philologists  of  the  Spanish-Jewish 
school  who  directed  their  attention  to  Biblical 
exegesis  proper  were  Moses  ibn  Giktilla  of  Cordova 
and  Judah  ibn  Balaam  of  Toledo  (both  flourished  in 
the  eleventh  century).  The  former  wrote  commen- 
taries on  Isaiah  and  the  Psalms,  from  which  Abraham 
ibn  Ezra  frequently  quotes.  These  commentaries 
are  the  first  comprehensive  attempt  to  explain  the 
respective  Biblical  books  historically.  Ibn  Giktilla's 
exegesis  is  thoroughly  rationalistic  (e.g.  he  gives 
rationalistic  explanations  of  the  Biblical  miracles), 
and  was  violently  attacked  by  Ibn  Balaam.  Both 
wrote  in  Arabic.^ 

^  /£",  z'h'd.  167. 

^  Abulwalid  ibn  Janah  (Rabbi  Jonah)  was  the  greatest 
Hebrew  philologist  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  work  of  his 
referred  to  above  is  divided  into  two  parts— the  Luma  and  the 
Book  of  Roots.  The  latter  has  been  edited,  in  the  Arabic  text, 
by  Dr.  Neubauer  (Oxford,  1875).  Abulwalid  was  born  at 
Cordova  between  the  years  1085  and  1090,  and  died  at 
Saragossa  in  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century. 

3  Ibn  Giktilla's  work  is  important  because  he  was  the  first 
exegete  to  give  purely  historical  explanation?  pf  the  prophecies 


GRAMMAR  AND  EXEGESIS  219 

But  the  Jewish-Spanish  schools  also  brought  forth 
new  elements  which  were  destined  to  influence 
Biblical  exegesis.  These  were  associated  with  the 
development  of  poetry  and  the  philosophy  of  religion. 
Jn  this  connexion  two  famous  names  may  be 
mentioned,  representatives  both  of  poetry  and  the 
philosophy  of  religion,  Solomon  ibn  Gebirol 
(1021-1058)^  and  Moses  ibn  Ezra  (1070-1138).  In 
order  to  reconcile  the  Biblical  statements  with  the 
postulates  of  philosophy  the  text  was  treated  with 
considerable  freedom.  Allegory  was  also  used  to 
some  extent.  "In  consequence  the  elements  of  a 
new  form  of  Midrash  found  their  way  into  Bible 
exegesis,  made  subservient  to  philosophic  speculation. 
The  Peshat  exegesis,  which  had  been  freed  from 
the  fetters  of  the  early  Midrash,  contained  in  the 
traditional  literature,  found  itself  now  confronted 
by  a  new  enemy — the  philosophic  Midrash."  ^  Mean- 
while, in  those  countries  which  lay  outside  the  domain 
of  the  Arabic  culture,  i.e.  the  Christian  countries  of 
Europe,  especially  France  and  Italy,  the  old  Mid- 
rashic  exegesis  remained  paramount,  and  continued 
to  develop  along  its  own  lines.  Its  schools  produced 
some  famous  exponents  of  this  type  of  exegesis, 
called  "  Darshanim,"  and  notably  Moses  ha-Darshan 
(flourished  in  Narbonne  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century).  It  also  came  to  expression  in  the  Yalkut 
Shimeoniy  a  vast  Midrashic  compilation  (often  from 
older  sources)  embracing  the  entire  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  and  dating  perhaps  from  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century. 

of  Isaiah  and  the  Minor  Prophets.  He  wrote  several  important 
works  on  grammar  and  philology,  and  occasionally  wrote  in 
Hebrew.  David  Kimhi  several  times  quotes  from  Ibn  Giktilla  in 
his  Psalms  commentary  {cf.  on  viii.  3  ;  xvi.  2  ;  xxv.  i ;  xxxv.  20). 

^  Gebirol  was  one  of  the  first  to  revive  the  study  of  Neo- 
platonism  in  Europe.     (See  above,  p.  33.) 

2  /£",  ibid.  168.  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  gives  several  specimens 
of  Ibn  Gebirol's  philosophico-allegorical  Bible  interpretation. 


220  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Strangely   enough,   however,  it    was    in    this   field 
(northern  France)  that  there  arose, in  complete  indepen- 
dence of  the  Spanish-Arabian  school,  a  new  school  of 
Bible  exegesis  which  endeavoured  to  arrive  at  a  literal 
and  simple  interpretation  of  the  Bible  text — the  Peshat 
■ — and  deliberately  set  this  in  contrast  with  the   Mid- 
rashic  exegesis.     The  founder  of  this  school  was  the 
famous  Rabbi  Shelomoh  Yishaki  (Solomon  ben  Isaac), 
commonly  called  Rashi  (died   1105).      The  value  of 
Rashi's  work  is  well  known  to   all    students   of  the 
later    Hebrew   literature.     His   commentary   on    the 
Talmud  is  indispensable,  and    is    practically   always 
printed  with  the  text  in    printed    editions.     But   his 
Biblical  commentaries  also  occupy  an  almost  unique 
position  in  Jewish  exegetical  literature,  especially  his 
running  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.     This  work, 
which  soon    acquired    the    widest    popularity,   has    a 
peculiarly  Jewish  .flavour  about  it  which  marks  it  out 
among  similar  works.     There  are  no  graces  of  style, 
but  the  comments  are  terse  and  to  the  point.     Not  a 
word  is  wasted.     It  also  combines  in  a   remarkable 
manner  the  new  with  the  old.     The  author  uses  the 
old  Midrashic  exegesis  by  a  process  of  selection  in 
such  a  way  as  to  evolve  explanations  which  conform 
to  the  Peshat.     The   more   fanciful   and    far-fetched 
Midrashic  applications  are  rejected.     In  addition  he 
pays  constant  attention  to  the  linguistic  side  of  the 
exegesis,   and    often    gives    the    vernacular    French 
equivalents  of  the  Hebrew  words.     "  There  is,"  says 
Dr.    I.    Abrahams,   speaking   of  Rashi's    Pentateuch 
commentary,^  "  a  quaintness  and  fascination  about  it 
which  are  lacking  in  the  pedantic  sobriety  of  [Abraham] 
ibn  Ezra  and  the  grammatical  exactness  of  [David] 
Kimhi."  ^    Rashi's  work  was  continued  by  his  sons-in- 
law,  and  by  his  distinguished  grandson,  Samuel  ben 
Meir  (Rashbam,  1100-1160),  whose  commentary  on 

^  For  editions,  see  pp.  133. 

2  Short  History  of  Jewish  Literature^  p.  73. 


GRAMMAR  AND  EXEGESIS  221 

the  Pentateuch  may  be  regarded  as,  perhaps,  marking 
the  highest  point  reached  by  the  exegetic  school  of 
northern  France.  In  his  work  and  that  of  Joseph  Kara 
the  Peshat  was  adopted  in  a  more  thoroughgoing  and 
independent  way  than  in  that  of  Rashi  himself. 

The  schools  of  northern  France  died  away  in  the 
early  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  owing  to  the 
tumults  brought  about  by  the  Crusades.  Jewish 
exegesis,  however,  in  the  Christian  countries  of 
Europe  was  destined  to  receive  a  new  and  fruitful 
impulse  from  a  Jew  who  had  absorbed  the  whole 
culture  of  Spanish  Judaism  at  the  highest  point  of 
its  intellectual  development.  This  was  Abraham 
ibn  Ezra,  who  was  born  at.  Toledo  some  time  before 
1 100.  Ibn  Ezra  left  his  home,  a  mature  man,  in 
1 140,  and  spent  nearly  thirty  years  (1140-1167)  in 
wandering  over  Italy,  Provence,  northern  France,  and 
England,  everywhere,  as  he  himself  says,  "writing 
books  and  revealing  the  secrets  of  knowledge."  In 
1 158  he  visited  London.  His  scholarship  and  literary 
activity  were  many-sided  and  astonishing.  He  was 
distinguished  as  a  mathematician,  a  poet,  and  an 
exegete.  His  commentaries,  written  in  Hebrew,  are 
the  most  important  products  of  his  literary  activity. 
They  are  distinguished  in  many  ways — by  the 
author's  mastery  over  his  material,  by  their  attractive 
style  and  graceful  Hebrew,  and  by  their  originality 
combined  with  profound  learning  and  critical  acumen. 
His  Pentateuch  commentary,  side  by  side  with 
Rashi's,  has  enjoyed  great  popularity  among  Jewish 
exegetical  works.  His  own  exegetical  method  is 
most  clearly  expounded  in  the  preface  to  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,  where  he  criticises  the 
various  methods  hitherto  employed  by  exegetes.  He 
clearly  distinguishes  between  the  Peshat  and  Derash, 
and  accords  only  a  limited  place  to  the  new  philo- 
sophical Midrash.  Dr.  I.  Abrahams  well  sums  up  his 
method  as  follows  :  "  In  his  commentaries  he  rejected 


222  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

the  current  digressive  and  allegorical  methods,  and 
steered  a  middle  course  between  free  research  on 
the  one  hand,  and  blind  adherence  to  tradition  on 
the  other.  Ibn  Ezra  was  the  first  to  maintain  that 
the  book  of  Isaiah  contains  the  work  of  two 
prophets — a  view  now  almost  universal.  He  never 
for  a  moment  doubted,  however,  that  the  Bible  was 
in  every  part  inspired,  and  in  every  part  the  Word  of 
God."  ^  The  Kimhis  were  worthy  coadjutors  in,  and 
continuators  of,  his  work. 

One  other  name  must  be  mentioned  before  we 
reach  the  period  of  David  Kimhi,  that  of  Moses  ben 
Maimon  (Maimonides),  who  is  by  common  consent 
to  be  regarded  as  "  the  greatest  Jew  of  the  Middle 
Ages."  Maimonides  (i  135-1204)  was  an  older  con- 
temporary of  David  Kimhi  (i  160-1235),  and  is 
constantly  quoted  by  the  latter  in  his  commen- 
taries. 2  Born  at  Cordova,  and,  like  Ibn  Ezra, 
inheriting  the  culture  of  Spanish  Jewry,  Maimonides 
also  helped  to  disseminate  this  culture  in  other  lands. 
Forced  to  leave  Spain,  owing  to  Mohammedan  per- 
secution, he  emigrated  with  his  family  in  1165  to 
Palestine,  and  after  a  time  settled  in  Egypt,  in 
Fostat,  or  old  Cairo,  where  he  ultimately  died. 

Maimonides  wrote  both  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic. 
Though  he  contributed  no  set  commentary  on  any 
Biblical  book,  his  chief  philosophical  work,  composed 
in  Arabic  and  subsequently  translated  into  Hebrew 
by  R.  Samuel  ibn  Tibbon,  and  known  as  "  The 
Guide  of  the  Perplexed"  (Hebrew  Moreh  Nehukim),^ 
contains  a  wealth  of  exegetic  material.     His  funda- 

^  op.  cit.  p.  69. 

2  Maimonides  was,  of  course,  a  younger  contemporary  01 
Abraham  ibn  Ezra.     See  pp.  34  f. 

2  Two  translations  of  the  Guide  were  made  during  the 
author's  lifetime.  The  original  was  written  about  1190.  It  was 
studied  by  both  Mohammedans  and  Christians  {e.g.  Aquinas). 
For  best  edition,  see  p.  265. 


GRAMMAR  AND  EXEGESIS  223 

mental  aim  in  this  work  is  to  reconcile  the  postulates 
of  philosophy,  based  on  the  Aristotelian  system  as 
expounded  by  Arabian  thinkers,  with  the  data  of 
the  Bible.  He  recognises  an  exoteric  and  esoteric 
sense  in  the  words  of  Scripture.  "  The  '  secrets  of 
the  Law'  hidden  in  the  Biblical  words  are  found 
by  investigation  into  the  esoteric  meaning.  But 
such  secrets,  as  sought  by  Maimonides,  have  nothing 
to  do  with  mysticism ;  he  undertakes  the  investi- 
gation with  absolute  rationalism,  as  may  be  seen 
particularly  in  his  explanation  of  certain  Bible  stories 
and  his  exposition  of  the  reasons  for  the  Law.  He 
finds  the  teachings  of  the  Aristotelian  physics  and 
metaphysics  in  the  chapters  on  Creation  (Gen.  i.), 
and  in  that  of  the  Heavenly  Chariot  (Ezek.  i.). 
His  rationalism,  however,  halts  at  the  facts  of  pro- 
phecy and  of  the  Bible  miracles,  though  here,  too, 
rational  investigation  comes  into  play.  One  of  the 
most  original  and  daring  aids  to  exegesis  is  evolved 
by  the  doctrine  concerning  prophecy,  namely,  the 
theory  of  visions — whereby  he  transfers  a  number 
of  Bible  stories  from  the  realm  of  fact  into  the 
realm  of  psychic  experience.  The  principle  of  the 
exoteric  and  esoteric  sense  of  Scripture  leads  him 
to  allegorical  exegesis  .  .  .  but  his  allegory  remains 
within  the  bounds  prescribed  to  it,  by  his  rationalism 
on  the  one  hand,  and  by  his  faith  in  tradition  on  the 
other."  1 

It  was  through  the  influence  of  this  great  work 
of  Maimonides  that  the  Aristotelian  philosophy 
became  firmly  entrenched  in  Jewish  thought,  and 
also  a  chief  factor  in  subsequent  Bible  exegesis. 

A  distinguished  part  in  the  diffusion  of  learning 
throughout  European  Jewry  during  the  twelfth  and 

^  JE^  ibid.  170.  "Maimonides,"  says  Dr.  Abrahams  {pp.  cit. 
p.  84),  "  like  Saadya,  recognised  a  higher  function  for  reason.  He 
placed  reason  on  the  same  level  as  revelation,  and  then  demon- 
strated that  his  faith  and  his  reason  taught  identical  truths." 


224  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

thirteenth  centuries  was  played  by  the  family  of 
Kimhi,  the  most  famous  of  whom  is  David  Kimhi. 
The  father  of  David  was  Joseph  Kimhi  (RiKam), 
who,  as  grammarian,  exegete,  poet,  and  translator, 
took  an  active  share  in  the  work  in  which  Ibn  Ezra 
was  engaged,  was  a  contemporary  of  the  latter,  his 
lifetime  falling  within  the  years  1105-1170,  and,  like 
Ibn  Ezra,  was  of  Spanish  birth  and  knew  Arabic. 
Owing  to  Arab  fanaticism,  he  was  forced  to  leave 
Spain  and  emigrated  to  Narbonne,  Provence,  where 
he  seems  to  have  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  days, 
living  the  life  of  a  poor  scholar-student  and  teacher. 
It  is  probable  that  Ibn  Ezra,  who  visited  Narbonne 
in  1 160,  met  Joseph  Kimhi.  He  quotes  the  latter  in 
his  Bible  commentaries.  Both  scholars  worked  along 
the  same  lines,  and,  though  Joseph  Kimhi  was  inferior 
to  Ibn  Ezra  both  in  brilliance  and  in  learning,  it  may 
yet  be  claimed  for  him  that  he  was  "the  first  suc- 
cessful transplanter  of  Judaeo-Arabic  science  to  the 
soil  of  Christian  Europe."  ^ 

In  the  department  of  grammatical  study,  though 
not  profoundly  original — he  was  especially  dependent 
upon  Hayyuj  and  Ibn  Janah — he  did  some  impor- 
tant work  and  made  some  advance,  more  particularly 
in  minor  details.  These  books  have  been  published  : 
Sefer  Zikkaron  (ed.  by  Bacher,  Berlin,  1888)  and 
Sefer  ha-Galuy  (ed.  by  Matthews,  Berlin,  1887). 
Both  works  contain  interesting  features.  Thus  the 
author  makes  a  point  of  examining  the  language  of 
the  Liturgy,  and  in  his  philological  discussions 
adduces  evidence  from  the  Talmud,  Targums,  and 
Arabic.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  exegetical 
works,  not  all  of  which  have  survived,  while  some 
of  his   work    which    exists    in    manuscript    is    still 

^  c^.  Gratz  {History  of  the  Jews,  iii.  404)  :  "  Joseph  Kimhi's 
merit  consists  solely  in  the  fact  that  he  introduced  the  Jewish 
culture  of  Spain  into  South  France,  and  completed  lastingly 
the  results  of  Ibn  Ezra's  fugitive  activity." 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  225 

unpublished.  Of  his  pubhshed  work  mention  may 
here  be  made  of  his  commentary  of  Proverbs,  Sefer 
Hukkak  (Breslau,  1868).  He  usually  follows  the 
method  of  the  Peshat,  and  in  his  exposition  pays 
careful  attention  to  the  context.  He  quotes  from 
and  criticises  predecessors  ;  he  avoids  reading  into 
the  text  of  Scripture  the  scientific  knowledge  of  his 
time.  We  must  here  pass  over  the  important  work 
he  accomplished  as  translator  and  poet.^ 

Joseph  Kimhi  died,  as  has  been  said,  about  11 70, 
leaving  a  younger  son,  David,  who  at  this  time  was 
a  boy  of  about  ten  years  of  age,  under  the  care  of 
an  elder  son,  Moses  Kimhi  (ReMaK),  who  at  this- 
time  was  probably  a  mature  man,^  and  was  a  scholar 
and  commentator  of  mark.  Commentaries  of  his 
on  Proverbs  and  Ezra-Nehemiah  are  printed  in  the 
Rabbinical  Bibles,  where  they  are  wrongly  attributed 
to  Ibn  Ezra.  He  also  wrote  treatises  on  grammar, 
and  one  of  these  (the  Mahalak)  became  widely 
used  as  a  concise  methodical  text-book  of  Hebrew 
grammar,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century  was  a  favourite  text-book  with  non-Jews. 
It  was  edited  many  times,  and  translated  into  Latin 
by  Sebastian  Mlinster. 

It  was  under  the  care  and  guidance  of  Moses 
Kimhi  that  the  young  David,  destined  to  become 
the  most  illustrious  of  his  line,  grew  up.  It  is  hardly 
surprising  that  with  such  connexions  and  under  such 
influences  David  Kimhi  should  have  become  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  of  Jewish  scholars,  well  versed 
in  the  whole  range  of  Hebrew  literature.  In  later 
times  one  of  the  sayings  from  Pirke  Ahoth  (iii.  21) 
was  applied  to  him  :  "  Without  Kemah  (=  fine  flour, 
the  etymon  of  the  name  Kimhi)   no   Torah."^     He 

^  For  details  s^e  JE  vii.  496  f 

2  Moses  Kimhi  died  about  a.d.  1190. 

■"'  The  name  was  pronounced  "  Kamhi "  in  Arabic-speaking 
circles.  From  the  meaning  oi Kemah  =  "corn  ground  smalV 
is  to  be  explained  the  French  surname  "  maistre  petit." 

Q 


226  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

is  also  sometimes  called  "  Sefardi "  ("Spaniard''),  on 
account  of  his  family's  connexion  with  Spain. 

David  Kimhi's  work  was  equally  notable  both  in 
the  domain  of  grammar  and  philology  and  in  that 
of  exegesis.  What  may  be  described  as  his  magnum 
opus,  the  Miklol,  to  which  he  constantly  refers  in 
his  commentaries,  is  a  combination  of  a  Hebrew 
grammar  and  a  dictionary  of  the  Bible.  This 
treatise  is  divided  into  two  quite  distinct  parts, 
which  were  later  separated,  the  second  part  being 
issued  separately  under  the  title  Sefer  ha-SIwrashim, 
or  "  Book  of  Roots "  ;  the  title  Miklol  was  then 
.retained  exclusively  for  the  first  or  grammatical 
part.  While  not  strikingly  original,  Kimhi's  work 
has  high  merit.  He  is  no  mere  compiler,  but 
marshals  his  material  with  the  sure  hand  of  a 
thorough  scholar,  who  possesses  in  a  high  degree 
the  power  of  lucid  systematisation  and  popular  expo- 
sition. "  His  grammatical  material  is  drawn  chiefly 
from  the  works  of  Hayyuj  and  Ibn  Janah  and  from 
the  writings  of  his  own  father.  He  tries  to  understand 
the  language  from  itself,  seeking  analogues  in  later 
Hebrew,  less  frequently  in  Aramaic  and  Arabic."  ^ 
Kimhi's  Miklol  has  exercised  a  lasting  influence  not 
only  on  Jews  but  on  Christians,  and  is  still  taken  into 
account  by  scientific  grammarians,  e.g.  by  E.  Konig, 
who,  in  his  monumental  work  on  Hebrew  grammar, 
writes  with  constant  reference  to  Kimhi.^ 

In  the  field  of  exegesis  Kimhi  produced  com- 
mentaries on  Genesis,  the  Prophets,  Psalms,  and 
Chronicles,  and  possibly  on  other  parts  of  the  Bible. 
Here,  again,  the  qualities  exhibited  in  his  grammatical 

1  /E  vii.  494. 

'^  Both  parts  of  the  Miklol  have  been  frequently  printed,  the 
grammar  as  recently  as  1862  by  Rittenberg  at  Paris,  and  the 
lexicon  at  Berlin  in  1847  (by  Biesenthal  and  Labrecht).  A 
Latin  translation  of  the  second  part  (the  "  Book  of  Roots")  was 
issued  in  1535,  and  of  the  first  part  (the  grammar)  in  1540, 
by  Guidacier  (Paris). 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  227 

and  philological  work,  which  appear  in  his  exposition, 
made  his  commentaries  exceedingly  popular  and 
influential.  That  on  the  Prophets  is  printed  in  the 
Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  parts  of  it  have  been  translated 
into  Latin  for  Christian  use.^  The  commentary  on 
the  Psalms  was  first  printed  in  1477,  ^^^  again  in  the 
Rabbinical  Bible  of  Chayim,  but  not  in  those  of 
Buxtorf  and  Frankfurter. 

His  exegesis  is  based  primarily  upon  an  exact 
and  grammatical  construction  of  the  text.  As  a 
rule,  he  adheres  strictly  to  the  literal  meaning  (the 
Peshat),  but  he  notices,  from  time  to  time,  the  old 
Haggadic  explanations,  as  well  as  (occasionally)  the 
later  philosophico-speculative  exposition.  He  con- 
stantly quotes  older  authorities  (especially  Abraham 
ibn  Ezra),  and  in  his  citations  from  the  Targum  often 
offers  valuable  data  for  the  criticism  of  its  text. 

The  effect  of  the  important  new  principles  intro- 
duced by  Maimonides  on  Jewish  thought  generally, 
and  on  Jewish  exegesis  in  particular,  was  profound 
and  far-reaching.  During  the  following  three  cen- 
turies the  philosophic  exegesis  of  Scripture,  with 
its  rationalism  and  its  use  of  allegory,  constantly 
asserted  itself  and  was  expressed  in  many  works 
of  an  exegetical  character.  "  Many  Bible  commen- 
taries," says  Professor  Bacher,  *'  were  primarily 
concerned  with  finding  the  tenets  of  philosophy  in 
Scripture."  Not  that  this  type  of  exegesis  succeeded 
in  ousting  altogether  its  rivals.     The   old  Midrashic 

^  Isaiah  (Melanimeus,  at  Florence,  1774)  ;  Joel  and  Jo7tah 
(Leusden,  Utrecht,  1656),  and  Malachi  (De  Muis,  Paris,  1618). 
Amos  was  rendered  into  German  in  1581  (by  Veke),  and 
Zechariah  into  English  (by  McCaul)  in  1837.  It  should  be 
added  that  Kimhi's  commentary  on  Chronicles  is  accessible 
also  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles  ;  that  on  Genesis  was  printed 
separately  in  1842  (Pressburg).  A  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
text  of  Kimhi's  commentary  on  the  Psalms  (Bk.  I.)  was  edited 
by  Dr.  Schiller  Szinessy  (Cambridge,  1883) :  English  transla- 
tions (Psalms  i.-\iii.)  by  Dr.  Greenup,  1918,  and  by  R.  G.  Finch 
(S.P.C.K.),  1919. 

Q   2 


228  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

tradition,  as  well  as  the  Peshat,  was  still  recognised, 
while  a  new  element — the  mystical  Kabbalistic — also 
became  influential.  And  all  the  time  the  reputation 
of  Rashi  and  Ibn  Ezra  steadily  grew.  In  fact,  what 
happened  was  that  all  these  factors  acted  and  reacted 
on  each  other,  and  are  often  to  be  detected  side  by 
side  in  the  same  works. 

It  would,  indeed,  have  been  a  disaster  for  Judaism 
if  the  tendencies  represented  by  Maimonides'  work 
had  triumphed  absolutely.  Erom  this  disaster  Juda- 
ism was  saved  by  the  protest  of  the  anti-Maimonists, 
which  took  a  somewhat  embittered  form  in  the 
controversy  that  broke  out  and  continued  for  a 
considerable  period  after  the  great  teacher's  death. 
In  the  end,  as  has  been  well  said,  "the  triumph  of 
Maimonides  was  complete  all  along  the  line.  But 
the  opposite  party  gained  something  for  which  it 
contended.  The  philosophical  conception  of  Judaism 
was  allowed  a  high  place  in  the  schools,  but  Judaism 
was  not  merged  into  rationalism.  This  was  due  to 
the  anti-Maimonists,  while  the  medicxval  Kabbalah 
(or  mysticism)  applied  to  the  Jewish  religion  that 
touch  of  emotion  which  Maimonides  so  conspicuously 
lacked.  Again,  the  aim  of  Maimonides  to  provide  a 
code  (the  Mishneh  Torah)  which  should  form  a  final 
court  of  appeal  in  Jewish  life  was  unsuccessful.  Into 
Spain  itself  the  Erench  methods  of  studying  the 
Talmud  were  introduced  during  the  century  follow- 
ing the  death  of  Maimonides.  So  far  from  destroying 
pilpul — casuistical  discussion — the  Code  or  Mishneh 
Torah  itself  became  the  object  of  pilpulistic  comment. 
This  was  to  the  advantage  of  Judaism.  Pilpul  is  to 
law  as  laboratory  work  to  science."  ^  In  spite  of 
opposition  the  influence  of  Maimonides  became  all- 
powerful.  Before  the  publication  of  the  Guide  •  of 
the  Perplexed  the  students  of  philosophy  within  the 
ranks  of  Judaism  had  been  few ;  but  ever  since 
^  Maimonides,  by  David  Yellin  and  Israel  Abrahams,  p.  152  f. 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  229 

they  have  been  both  numerous  and  pov/erful.  The 
influence  of  Maimonides  also  has  served  as  a 
wholesome  check  upon  the  extravagances  of  the 
Kabbalistic  movement. 

The  books  of  the  Bible  that  especially  lent  them- 
selves to  exegetic  treatment  from  the  philosophic 
point  of  view  were  the  Wisdom  Books  (Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Job),  and  another  book,  which 
had  long  been  subjected  to  allegorical  treatment — 
Canticles.  Maimonides'  pupil  and  spiritual  son, 
Joseph  ibn  Aknin,  produced  a  commentary  on  it 
of  the  philosophic-allegorical  type ;  Samuel  ibn 
Tibbon,  who  translated  Maimonides'  Arabic  into 
Hebrew,  wrote  a  commentary  of  this  kind  on  Eccle- 
siastes, and  his  son  Moses  another  on  Canticles. 
One  of  the  most  important  products  of  this  line  of 
thought  is  the  Malmad  ha-Talmidim  of  Abba  Mari 
ben  Jacob  Anatoli  (son-in-law  of  Samuel  ibn  Tibbon), 
a  collection  of  sermons  on  the  perikopes  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. Here  the  allegorical  exegesis  is  pursued  in 
the  style  of  Philo,  even  the  personages  and  occur- 
rences of  the  Pentateuch  being  resolved  into  philo- 
sophic concepts  and  postulates.  The  philosophic 
exegesis  was  pursued  during  the  fourteenth  century, 
its  most  notable  representative  being  Levi  ben 
Gershon  (died  1344),  "  a  '  strict  Aristotelian  who 
wrote  commentaries  on  most  of  the  Biblical  books." 
Similar  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch  were  written 
by  Nissim  ben  Moses  of  Marseilles,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  by  Samuel  Zarza  of 
Valencia  (fourteenth  century).  Mention  may  also 
be  made  here  of  the  Akedath  Yitzhak  ("  Offering 
of  Isaac")  of  Isaac  Arama,  "the  last  great  exegetic 
work  written  in  Spain  before  the  expulsion "  (in 
1492).  It  consists  of  sermons,  largely  of  a  philo- 
sophical nature.  The  influence  of  this  type  of 
thought  can  also  be  seen  .in  the  work  of  Don  Isaac 
Abarbanel    (or    Abravanel),    who    was    one    of    the 


230  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

victims  of  the  expulsion.  Abarbanel  was  born  in 
Lisbon  in  1437,  and  died  in  Venice  in  1508.  His 
career  was  chequered.  For  some  years  before  the 
expulsion  (1484- 1492)  he  occupied  a  high  position 
of  State  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Then  he 
was  driven  from  Spain  in  the  general  expulsion, 
and  went  in  succession  to  Naples,  Corfu,  and  Venice, 
where  he  died  in  happiness  and  honour.  As  a  com- 
mentator it  has  been  said  of  him  that  "  no  prede- 
cessor .  .  .  came  so  near  as  he  did  to  the  modern 
ideal  of  a  commentator  on  the  Bible."  ^  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  whole  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
(except  the  Hagiographa),  and  was  the  first  Jewish 
exegete  to  prefix  introductions  to  works  of  this  kind, 
dealing  with  such  questions  as  authorship,  date,  etc. 
He  also  cites,  without  animus,  the  views  of  Christian 
exegetes,  such  as  Jerome,  Augustine,  and  Nicholas 
de  Lyra.  These  excellences  made  Abarbanel's  work 
highly  esteemed  in  Christian  circles,  where  they  were 
closely  studied  and  exercised  a  lasting  influence. 
Abarbanel's  training  in  high  affairs  of  State  had 
made  him  realise  that  to  understand  ancient  writings 
the  social  and  political  environment  in  which  they 
were  born  must  be  considered  and  envisaged. 
Though  he  was  much  influenced  by  Maimonides, 
and  was  himself  an  Aristotelian,  Abarbanel  was 
not  fundamentally  in  sympathy  with  the  root- 
conceptions  of  the  philosophic  school.  He  firmly 
believed  in  the  reality  of  God's  revelation  in  history, 
and  especially  in  that  of  the  history  of  the  Chosen 
People.  "  Had  Abravanel,"  says  Dr.  Ginzberg,^  "  not 
been  misled  by  the  Guide  of  Maimonides,  for  whom 
he  shared  the  traditional  veneration,  he  might  have 
given  an  exposition  of  his  views  on  the  relations 
of  philosophy  and  religion.  As  it  is,  however,  these 
views  are  confused,  being  at  one  and  the  same  time 

'  I.  Abrahams,  SAor/  Hhtory  of  Jewish  Literature^  p.  139. 
2  In/7^i.  i27f. 


GRAMMAR  AND   EXEGESIS  231 

Maimonistic,  anti-Maimonistic,  and  in  a  measure 
even  cabalistic."  His  formal  treatises  on  philosophy 
exhibit  this  mixed  character.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  the  Miphaloth  'Elohini  ("  Deeds  of 
God"),  which  is  mainly  based  on  Maimonides,  and 
the  Rosh  'Amanah  ("Pinnacle  of  Faith"),  a  defence 
of  the  Thirteen  Articles  of  the  Creed  formulated 
by  Maimonides.  He  also  wrote  three  works  in 
defence  of  the  Messianic  Belief  (1496-98),  one  of 
which  is  in  the  form  of  a  commentary  on  Daniel, 
whom,  contrary  to  Jewish  tradition,  he  reckons 
among  the  Prophets. 

From  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  century  a  line 
of  French  scholars,  continuing  the  tradition  of  Rashi, 
occupied  themselves  with  Talmudical  studies.  From 
the  "  additions "  (Tosaphoth)  which  they  compiled 
to  Rashi's  famous  commentary  on  the  Talmud 
these  scholars  acquired  the  name  of  "  Tosaphists." 
The  "  Tosaphists  "  were  essentially  casuists,  delight- 
ing in  subtle  analysis  and  discussion,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ideal  of  the  Spanish  school  of 
Talmudists  was  simplification.  The  Tosaphists  dis- 
played so  keen  a  critical  insight,  and  attained  so 
great  a  mastery  over  the  Talmudical  material,  and 
were,  moreover,  so  filled  with  the  old  Rabbinical 
spirit,  that  their  fame  and  reputation  spread  far, 
even  into  Spain  itself  Their  ohiter  dicta  on  exege- 
tical  matters  were  afterwards  collected  into  different 
compilations  ;  and  commentaries  were  written  under 
their  influence  by  Eliezer  of  Beaugency  (twelfth 
century),  who  was  a  pupil  of  Samuel  ben  Meir, 
Rashi's  grandson.  Those  on  Isaiah  and  Hosea  have 
been  published  ;  others  exist  in  MS.  in  libraries. 
Eliezer,  whose  work  is  almost  entirely  free  from 
Midrashic  elements,  was  mainly  concerned  with  the 
endeavour  to  trace  the  logical  connexion  of  verses 
and  passages. 

The  most  eminent  of  the    Tosaphists    was   Jacob 


232  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

ben  Meir  Tarn,  commonly  called  "  Rabbenu  Tarn  " 
(1100-1171),  a  brother  of  Samuel  ben  Meir,  and, 
of  course,  a  grandson  of  Rashi.  He  was  not  only 
a  great  Talmudist,  but  also  did  important  work  as 
a  grammarian,  and  was,  besides,  a  liturgical  poet, 
but  not  a  Biblical  commentator. 

The  great  reconciler  between  the  French  and 
Spanish  schools  was  Moses  ben-  Nachman,  com- 
monly called  Nachmanides  (Ramban),  himself  a 
Spaniard  (i  195-1270).  Of  the  French  Rabbis  he 
says :  "  They  are  our  masters  in  Talmud,  and  to 
them  we  must  go  for  instruction."^  Inheriting  the 
culture  q{  Spain,  he  also  possessed  much  of  the 
Spanish  independence  and  breadth  of  view.  He  was 
also  a  poet,  and  a  man  of  a  warm  and  sympathetic 
temperament.  Exiled  from  Spain,  a  victim  of  Chris- 
tian zeal,  he  settled  in  Palestine  in  1267,  and  died 
there  about  1270. 

He  wrote  some  important  theological  works,  notably 
"  The  Sacred  Letter,"  in  which  he  defended  the  divine 
character  of  man's  earthly  nature  ("  the  flesh  "),  and 
"  The  Law  of  Man "  (Torath  ha- Adam),  in  which 
there  is  much  wise  reflection  on  suffering  and  death. 
Pain  and  suffering,  he  says,  are  *'  a  service  of  God, 
leading  man  to  ponder  on  his  end  and  reflect  about 
his  destiny."  His  greatest  work  was,  however,  his 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  (written  about  1268). 
There  is  much  in  this  that  charms  and  impresses  the 
reader.  It  is  not  only  scholarly,  but  full  of  original 
thought,  based  upon  independent  study.  But  its 
most  significant  quality  is  its  mysticism,  in  which  we 
can  discern  the  first  beginnings  of  Kabbalistic  doc- 
trine. True,  this  is  restrained  and  guarded  in  Nach- 
manides' work,  and  is  rigidly  confined  to  a  secondary 
place.  But  it  is  there.  The  underlying  principle  of 
this  type  of  exegesis  is  that  the  words  of  Scripture 
have  implicit  in  them  a  deeper  esoteric  meaning, 
apart  from  the  plain  literal  sense.     "  This  conception, 

'   I.  Abrahams,  op.  ci/.  p.  97. 


GRAMMAR  AND  EXEGESIS  233 

together  with  the  assumption  that  all  truths  about 
God  and  creation,  the  universe  and  man,  which  are 
cognisable  by  the  human  mind,  and  which  have  been 
so  cognised,  must  be  found  in  Scripture,"^  is  clearly 
enunciated  by  Nachmanides  in  the  preface  prefixed 
to  his  Pentateuch  commentary.  Here  it  appears 
openly  avowed  for  the  first  time,  and  gained  much 
from  the  powerful  recognition  of  so  famous  a  scholar. 
This  principle  asserts  itself  in  his  typological  exegesis 
of  the  Biblical  narrative.  Thus  the  six  days  of 
Creation  are  regarded  as  a  prophecy  of  the  six 
thousand  years  of  the  world's  history,  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  the  seventh,  or  millennial  age.  Jacob  and 
Esau  are  prototypes  of  Israel  and  Rome,  and  Joshua's 
battle  with  Amalek  prefigures  the  Messianic  conflict 
which  is  imminent.  These  ideas  and  applications 
are  not,  of  course,  original  with  Nachmanides — they 
belong  to  the  old  apocalyptic  tradition — but  their 
recrudescence  in  the  orthodox  teaching  of  the  Rabbis, 
at  this  time,  was  a  novelty.  Not  that  he  was  a  Kab- 
balist  in  the  full  sense— he  did  not,  for  instance, 
accept  the  Kabbalistic  tenet  of  the  eternity  of  matter 
and  the  world  {Kadmuth  hd-6ldm),  and  differed  from 
them  on  other  important  points.  But  his  mystical 
tendencies  were  marked. 

Another  form  of  mysticism,  based  upon  the  letter 
of  Scripture,  arose  in  Germany  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  represented  in  the  writings  of  Elijah  ben 
Judah  of  Worms  (i  176-1238).  This  consisted  in 
the  manipulation  (by  combination  and  interchange) 
of  the  letters  of  the  Scriptural  text,  and  by  similar 
manipulation  of  their  numerical  values  (Gematria). 
The  Kabbalistic  method  of  exegesis  is  founded  upon 
this  method,  which  it  uses  in  combination  with  the 
allegorical  and  typological  exegesis.  These  methods 
of  exegesis,  together  with  others  (non-Kabbalistic), 
are  represented  in  the  commentary  of  Bachya  ben 
Asher  of  Saragossa  (1291)  on  the  Pentateuch,  which 

^JE  iii.  1 70. 


234  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

enjoyed  a  wide  popularity.  Four  methods  of  exe- 
gesis are  mentioned  in  the  introduction  to  this  work 
as  appHcable  to  the  text  of  Scripture:  (i)  The 
method   of  the    Peshat ;    (2)    that    of   the    M  id  rash  ; 

(3)  that   of  reason    {i.e.    the    philosophic    exegesis)  ; 

(4)  that  of  the  Kabbalah.  It  was  about  this  time 
that  the  great  classical  exposition  of  the  Kabbalistic 
mysticism — the  famous  book  Zohar — appeared  in 
Spain.     More  will  be  said  of  this  below. 

The  four  methods  of  exegesis  just  referred  to  as 
exhibited  in  Bachya  ben  Asher's  work  can  be  traced, 
in  various  degrees  of  emphasis,  throughout  the 
prolific  exegetical  literature  that  was  produced  in 
the  various  centres  of  Jewry  during  the  three 
centuries  that  followed  the  death  of  Maimonides. 
Some  of  the  more  prominent  and  important  of 
these  works  have  been  referred  to  above,  and  must 
be  passed  over  in  silence  here.  The  period  that 
followed  was  one  of  stagnation  and  decline  in 
general  culture,  marked  by  a  sterile  devotion  to 
purely  Talmudic  studies,  which  was  only  brought 
to  an  end  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  the  move- 
ment initiated  by  Moses  Mendelssohn.  At  the 
same  time  a  similar  growth  of  Kabbalistic  study, 
also  one-sided,  took  place  by  way  of  reaction,  which 
was  accompanied  by  much  superstition. 

Abarbanel  stands  on  the  threshold  of  this  epoch,  but  really 
belongs  to  the  one  that  was  passing  away.  A  younger  con- 
temporary, Ellas  Levita  (1469-1549),  in  Italy  devoted  himself 
to  Masoretic  studies,  and  produced  his  epoch-making  work 
Masoret  ha~Masoret  (standard  edition  by  C.  D.  Ginsburg, 
1867).  He  and  his  contemporary,  Jacob  ben  Chayim,  also 
a  Masoretic  scholar,  stimulated  the  study  of  Hebrew  in 
Europe.  (His  Introduction  to  the  Rabbinic  Bible,  Hebrew  and 
English,  has  been  edited  by  C.  D.  Ginsburg,  2nd  edition,  1867). 
The  most  prolific  exegete  was  Moses  Alsheik  of  Safed  (second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century),  who  produced  voluminous  com- 
mentaries, largely  homiletical  and  Midrashic  in  character,  on 
most  of  the  books  of  the  Bible. 


THE  MYSTICAL  LITERATURE  235 

III 

THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE 

[Literature  :  Dr.  Philipp  Bloch,  Die  judische  Mystik  und 
Kabbala  (in  Winter  und  Wiinsche,  iii.  219-286)  ;  J.  Abelson, 
Jewish  Mysticism  (1913)  ;  articles  Cabala  (by  Cinzberg  in 
JE  iii.  456-479),  Zohar  (by  Broyde  in  //:  xii.  689-693)  ; 
Ginsburg,  The  Kabbalah  (London,  1865)  ;  Mathers,  The 
Kabbalah  U7iveiled  (London,  1887)  ;  A.  Franck,  La  Kabbale 
(2nd  ed.  1889). 

The  whole  of  the  Zohar  has  been  translated  into  French 
by  Jean  de  Pauly. 

See  also  Steinschneider,  Je:vish  Lileralure,  and  Schechter, 
Studies  i?t  Judaism,  first  series,  pp.  i  ff.  (on  the  Chassidim).] 

The  general  name  of  the  mystical  type  of  thought 
that  finds  expression  in  Jewish  Hterature  is  Kabbalah 
("Cabala'),  which  means  "tradition,"  "the  received 
or  traditional  lore."  ^  This  is  the  specific  term  used 
for  "  the  esoteric  or  mystic  doctrine  concerning 
God  and  the  universe,  asserted  to  have  come  down 
as  a  revelation  to  elect  saints  from  a  remote  past 
and  preserved  only  by  a  privileged  few."^  At 
first  the  elements  embraced  in  the  tradition  were 
simple,  but  under  the  influence  of  the  Neoplatonic 
and  Neopythagorean  philosophy  it  gradually  assumed 
a  speculative  character.  In  the  Geonic  period  this 
lore  gathered  round  a  sort  of  holy  book  entitled 
Sepher  Yctzirah,  or  "  Book  of  Creation,"  and  was 
systematically  studied  by  the  elect  called  "  mekub- 
balim "  or  "  Ba'ale  ha-Kabbalah,"  i.e.  those  initiated 
into,  or  possessors  of,  Kabbalah.^ 

^  Heb.  n"'?3p,  from  hp  "to  receive.'*' 

^  Kohler  \nJE  iii.  456. 
^Afterwards  called  "maskiliin"  ("wise,"  from  Daniel 
xii.  10).  The  technical  term  n-ino:  7\r^'y^  =  "  hidden  wisdom  " 
also  furnished  a  designation  from  its  initial  letters  ^''n  = 
"grace";  the  initiates  were  known  as  »n  ^riv  (Eccles.  ix.  11) 
=  "  adepts  in  grace." 


236  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

During,  the  thirteenth  century  and  onward  these 
studies,  which  had  been  more  or  less  confined  to 
small  circles,  received  a  great  impetus  and  became 
widely  diffused.  They  gave  rise  to  an  extensive 
literature,  written  in  a  peculiar  dialect  of  Aramaic, 
and  grouped  around  a  new  holy  book — the  Zohar — 
which  suddenly  made  its  appearance,  but  claimed 
to  be  a  work  of  great  antiquity,  its  reputed  author 
being  the  famous  second-century  R.  Simeon  b. 
Yochai.  This  Kabbalistic  literature  grew  up,  to 
some  extent,  in  opposition  to  the  Talmud. 

Though  the  Zohar  was  compiled  in  its  present  form  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  it  embraces  much  older  elements,  and,  in  fact,  is 
essentially  a  reshaping  of  old  material.  The  Kabbalistic 
tradition  can,  indeed,  be  traced  back  to  a  considerable  antiquity. 
Books  containing  the  secret  lore  of  the  "  wise "  circulated 
within  small  circles,  as  an  esoteric  literature,  at  a  comparatively 
early  period  i^cf.  Dan.  xii.  9-10;  2  Esdras  xiv.  45-46).  There 
was,  in  fact,  a  continuous  esoteric  tradition,  which  has  run  on 
from  ancient  down  to  modern  times.  The  name  Kabbalah 
suggests  this,  and  the  Kabbalists  were  perfectly  right  in  main- 
taining that  the  ideas  to  which  they  gave  expression,  and  which 
they  were  constantly  reshaping,  were  old.  How  old  is  not 
always  realised.  "  A  study  of  the  few  still  existing  apocryphal 
books  [of  the  Old  Testament],"  says  Kohler,^  "discloses  the 
fact,  ignored  by  most  writers  on  the*  Cabala  .  .  .  that  the 
'mystic  lore'  occasionally  alluded  to  in  the  Talmudic  or 
Midrashic  literature  ...  is  not  only  much  more  systematically 
presented  in  these  older  writings,  but  gives  ample  evidence 
of  a  continuous  Cabalistic  tradition  ;  inasmuch  as  the  mystic 
literature  of  the  Geonic  period  is  only  a  fragmentary  repro- 
duction of  the  ancient  apocalyptic  writings,  and  the  saints  and 
sages  of  the  Tannaitic  period  take  in  the  former  the  place 
occupied  by  the  Biblical  protoplasts,  patriarchs,  and  scribes  in 
the  latter." 

The  Slavonic  Enoch  (not  later  than  the  early  part  of  the  first 
century  A.D.)  is  remarkably  illuminating  in  its  realistic  pre- 
sentment of  some  of  the  Kabbalistic  ideas— (?.^.  as  to  the  process 
of  creation,  the  constitution  of  the  heavens,  and  so  on  ;  the 
wonders  of  the  Creative  Wisdon"!  can  also  be 'traced  in  other 
apocryphal  and  apocalyptic  books  {e.g.  Ikn-Sira,  Testament  of 


InJE  iii.  457. 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  237 

Abraham).  In  fact,  the  two  great  themes  of  this  early  mystical 
tradition  were  the  cosmogony  and  the  mysteries  of  the  Divine 
Chariot  or  Throne.  "  The  speculation  which  gave  rise  to  the 
tradition  starts  from  Ezekiel's  Chariot-vision  (Ezek,  i.).  .  .  .  The 
material  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  nvhich  is  constantly 
reshaped,  consists  mainly  of  descriptions  of  the  seven  heavens, 
'  with  their  hosts  of  angels,  and  the  various  store-houses  of  the 
world,  and  of  the  divine  throne  above  the  highest  heaven.'  " 
Heaven  is  pictured  as  filled  with  light  of  inexpressible  brilliance, 
and  the  Divine  Chariot  as  surrounded  by  fiery  angels  of  warlike 
aspect.  The  mystic  who  is  allowed  to  enter  the  celestial  sphere 
usually  receives  divine  disclosures  about  the  future  or  the 
spiritual  world. 

In  order  to  enjoy  this  experience  he  had  to  prepare  himself 
to  enter  the  ecstatic  state,  and  this  was  brought  about  especially 
by  ablutions  and  fastings,  but  sometimes  also  by  fervent  invo- 
cations and  by  other  means.  He  was  rewarded  by  "the  vision 
of  the  Divine  Chariot"  (or  Merkabah)}  The  typical  mystic 
imagined  himself  entering  the  Divine  Chariot  and  floating- 
through  the  air.  Such  were  called  Yorede  Mefkabah,  i.e. 
"  those  who  go  down  {i.e.  embark)  into  the  ship-like  chariot."  - 
It  is  in  this  chariot  that  they  arc  supposed  to  ascend  into  the 
heavens,  where,  in  the  dazzling  light,  they  are  able  to  penetrate 
the  secrets  of  the  universe.  The  heavenly  charioteer  is 
Metatron,^  the  angel  next  the  Throne,  whose  name  is  like 
God's,  who  possesses  all  knowledge  and  imparts  it  to  man. 
The  affinities  of  the  Kabbalistic  literature  with  ancient  Gnos- 
ticism have  been  pointed  out  by  Kohler,  and  afford  further 
evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  this  literature. 

Two  elements  may  be  broadly  distinguished  here  :  {a)  The 
mythological  element,  and  especially  the  grossly  anthropo- 
morphic descriptions  of  the  Deity,  which  occur  in  the  older 
writings  embodied  in  the  present  form  of  the  Zohar,  and 
doubtless  belong  to  the  old  tradition  of  ancient  lore  ;  (b)  the 
speculative  Kabbalah,  which  probably  was  derived  from 
Alexandria  in  the  first  century  or  earlier,  "with  her  strange 
commingling  of  Egyptian,  Chaldcean,  Judiiean,  and  Greek 
culture."  It  was  in  this  congenial  soil  that  the  seeds  of  the 
mystic  philosophy  were  sown. 

It  is  important  to  emphasise  the  fact,  which  has 
been  referred  to  above,  that  the  Kabbalistic  tradition 

1  G.  H.  Box,  Introduction  to  the  Apocalypse  of  Abra/ia?}i, 
p.  xxix.  2  Jellinek. 

^  According  to  Kohler,  this  name  was  suggested  by  that  of 
Mithra. 


238  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

is  a  continuous  development  from  older  sources. 
This  is  sometimes  lost  sight  of  when  the  Zohar  is 
spoken  of  scornfully  as  a  "forger}^,"  clumsily  put 
together  by  Moses  de  Leon  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  little,  if  anything,  that 
is  original  in  Moses'  work,  which  was  essentially  a 
reshaping  of  old  traditional  material,  and  actually 
embodied  older  works  in  their  original  form. 

A  considerable  Hebrew  literature  of  the  Kabba- 
listic-mystical  type  seems  to  have  been  current  in 
the  Geonic  period.  Many  of  these  books  are  no 
longer  extant,  but  some  have  survived.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  is  that  known  as  Shi'ur  Komah, 
an  extraordinary  treatise  on  the  bodily  dimensions 
of  God.  It  exists  in  fragments,  the  largest  of  which 
is  included  in  the  Kabbalistic  book  Sepher  Raziel. 
It  apparently  was  current  in  the  eighth  and  following 
centuries  as  an  independent  work,  and  in  its  present 
form  may  have  been  redacted,  at  the  latest,  in  the 
eighth  century.  But  in  substance  it  is  much  older, 
having  affinities  with  the  early  Gnostic  systems  of 
thought.^ 

Closely  allied  to  this,  and  in  its  present  form 
probably  belonging  to  the  same  period,  is  the 
"  Hekaloth  "  literature,  a  number  of  fragments  treat- 
ing of  the  heavenly  "  Halls "  {hekaloth),  which, 
according  to  Hai  Gaon,  originated  with  the  mystics 
who  experienced  the  heavenly  chariot-ride  (Yorede 
Merkabah),  already  referred  to.  These,  according 
to  the  same  authority,  "  brought  themselves  into  a 
state  of  entranced  vision  by  fasting,  asceticism,  and 
prayer,  and  imagined  that  they  saw  the  seven 
[heavenly]  halls,  and  all  that  is  therein,  with  their 
own  eyes,  while  passing  from  one  hall  into  another." 

The  most  remarkable  literary  production  of  this 
kind,   however,   is   the   Sepher   Yetzirah   ("  Book    of 

1  For  specimens  of  the  contents  in  translation,  see  JE  xi. 
298  {s.v.  Shi^ur  Komah). 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  239 

Creation "),  which,  in  its  present  form,  ma)-  belong 
to  the  Geonic  period.  This  work  enjoyed  so  great 
a  reputation  in  the  ninth  century  that  Saadya 
wrote  a  commentary  on  it.  It  forms  the  link 
between  the  earlier  mystic  literature  and  the  later 
Kabbalah.  The  doctrine  of  emanations,  which 
played  so  prominent  a  part  later,  as  well  as  the 
mystic  power  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
are  here  enunciated  in  an  early  form.  The  ten 
"  Sephiroth,"  according  to  this  book,  constitute  the 
fundamentals  of  all  existence,  being  the  ten  prin- 
ciples that  mediate  between  God  and  the  universe. 
They  include  the  three  primal  emanations  that 
proceed  from  the  Spirit  of  God,  viz.  (i)  spiritual 
air,  (2)  primal  water,  (3)  fire.  Six  others  consist  of 
the  three  dimensions  (height,  length,  breadth)  to 
the  left  and  right ;  and  these  nine,  together  with 
the  Spirit  of  God,  form  the  ten  "Sephiroth,"  which 
are  eternal.  The  first  three  are  the  ideal  proto- 
types of  Creation,  which  became  possible  when 
infinite  space,  represented  by  the  six  other  Sephiroth, 
was  produced. 

While  the  three  primal  elements  constitute  the 
substance  of  things,  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  constitute  the  form.  The  letters 
hover,  as  it  were,  on  the  boundary-line  between 
the  spiritual  and  the  physical  world  ;  for  the  real 
existence  of  things  is  cognisable  only  by  means  of 
language,  i.e.  the  human  capacity  for  conceiving 
thought.  As  the  letters  resolve  the  contrast  between 
the  substance  and  the  form  of  things,  they  represent 
the  solvent  activity  of  God  ;  for  everything  that 
is  exists  by  means  of  contrasts,  which  find  their 
solution  in  God,  as,  for  instance,  among  the  three 
primal  elements,  the  contrasts  between  fire  and  water 
are  resolved  into  ruach,  "  air  "  or  "  spirit "  ("  spiritual 
air"). 

The  doctrine  of  emanations    is,    of  course,    really 


240  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Neoplatonic.  It  attempts  to  answer  the  question, 
how  the  finite  can  be  brought  into  touch  with  the 
infinite,  by  the  view  that  all  existing  things  are  an 
outflowing  which  ultimately  proceeds  from  God. 
God  embraces  them  all,  animate  and  inanimate. 

The  Sepher  Yetzirah  prepared  the  way  for  the 
mediaeval  Kabbalah.  Its  doctrine  of  the  ten  Sephi- 
roth  has  obvious  affinities  with  the  later  represen- 
tation in  the  Zohar  and  allied  literature,  though 
there  are  important  points  of  difference.^  Its  im- 
portance is  obvious,  for  it  brings  us  into  the  heart 
of  Jewish  mysticism. 

Besides  the  Sepher  Yelzmi/i,  the  following  are  the  most 
important  books  or  fragments  belonging  to  the  mystic  literature 
of  the  period  of  the  Geonim  that  have  survived:  (i)  "The 
Alphabet  of  R.  Akiba"  (two  versions  published  in  Jellinek's 
Beth  ha-Midrash^  vol.  iii.)  ;  (2)  "The  Garden  of  Eden  "  {Gan 
'Eden)  in  Jellinek,  ii.,  iii.,  v.  (different  versions)  ;  (3)  Tractate 
on  "Gehinnom"  (Jellinek,  i.)  ;  (4)  "The  Sword  of  Moses'' 
{Harba  de-Mosheh),  ed.  by  Gaster,  1896;  (5)  Hibbut  ha-Kebei 
(Jellinek,  i.)  ;  (6)  Hekaloth  (already  referred  to)  in  several 
versions  in  Jellinek,  ii.,  iii.  (also  in  Wertheimer's  Jerusalem^ 
1889)  ;  Midrash  Konen  (Jellinek,  i.,  and  several  times  printed). 
Fragments  of  this  early  mystical  literature  also  exist  in  the 
Pirke  de  R.  Eliezer^  Midrash  Tadshe^  and  Numbers  rabba. 

The  revival  of  Kabbalistic  literature  that  took 
place  in  the  Geonic  period  makes  it  certain  that 
many  scholars  belonging  to  the  Babylonian  schools 
cultivated  the  mystic  lore.  Some  of  the  Geonim 
themselves  were  deeply  interested  in  these  studies, 
and  it  is  not  without  significance  that  certain 
Kabbalistic  works,  even  though  they  may  have 
been  compiled  at  a  later  time,  were  ascribed  to  the 
authorship  of  particular  Geonim. 

Another  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  German 
Kabbalah  owes  its  origin  to  Babylonia.  It  was  a 
Babylonian,  Aaron  ben  Samuel  ha-Nasi,   who,   emi- 

^  For  a  discussion  of  these,  see  Abelson,  Jewish  Mysticism 
chap.  v. 


THE   MYSTICAL  LITERATURE  241 

grating  to  Italy  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  carried  with  him  these  teachings,  and 
imparted  them  to  the  Kalonymides,  who  carried 
them  to  Germany  about  917.  They  were  not 
published  till  nearly  three  centuries  later,  when 
Judah  the  Pious  (died  12 17),  himself  a  member  of 
the  family,  commissioned  his  pupil,  Eleazar  of 
Worms,  to  introduce  the  oral  and  written  Kabba- 
listic  doctrine  into  larger  circles.  This  explains 
the  strange  fact  that  the  German  Kabbalah  is  a 
direct  continuation  of  the  Geonic  type  of  mysticism. 
In  Italy  and  Germany  it  had  remained  untouched 
by  foreign  influences. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Arabic-speaking  countries 
the  Graeco-Arabic  philosophy  reacted  upon  the 
Kabbalistic  tradition  ;  and,  in  particular,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  philosophical  doctrines  of  Solomon  ibn 
Gebirol  (1021-58),  the  great  exponent  of  Neo- 
platonism,  was  marked.  Thus  the  three  sources 
from  which  the  Kabbalah  of  the  thirteenth  century 
was  derived  were  the  esoteric  tradition  of  the 
Talmud,  the  Geonic  mysticism,  and  the  Arabic 
Neoplatonic  philosophy. 

The  essential  doctrines  of  the  German  school  of  Kabbalists, 
whose  principal  literary  exponent  was  Eleazar  of  Worms  (died 
1237),^  are  as  follows  : 

God  is  exalted  beyond  mortal  comprehension.  In  order  to 
make  Himself  visible  to  inferior  beings  (both  angels  and  men), 
He  created  out  of  the  divine  fire  His  kabod  ("  glory," 
"  majesty  "),''^  which  has  both  size  and  shape,  and  sits  on  a 
throne,  as  God's  visible  presence,  in  the  east.  This  "glory"  is 
veiled  by  a  curtain  {pargod)  on  the  east,  north,  and  south 
from  the  world  of  angels,  but  is  open  to  the  illumination  of  the 
divine  light  from  the  west.  All  the  anthropomorphic  statements 
of  Scripture  are  referred  to  this  "glory."  The  German 
Kabbalah  also  assumes  the  existence  of  different  worlds, 
viz.    (i)    the    world    of    the     "glory"    {kabod)  ;    (2)    that     of 

^  R.  Eleazar  ben  Jehudah,  called  "  Rokeach,"  was  probably 
born  in  Mainz.     He  lived  and  died  at  Worms. 
-  cp.  the  Rabbinical  "  Shekhinah." 

R 


242  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

angels  ;  (3)  that  of  the  animal  soul  ;  (4)  that  of  the  intellectual 
soul.  The  lack  of  the  late  philosophical  element  here  is  ob- 
vious, and  clearly  reflects  the  ancient  type  of  mystical  thought 
which  goes  back  to  the  Talmudic  period.  It  responded  to  the 
needs  of  religious  feeling  in  revolt  against  a  dry  and  intellectual 
legalism. 

"While  study  of  the  law  was  to  the  Talmudists  the  very 
acme  of  piety,  the  mystics  accorded  the  first  place  to  prayer, 
which  was  considered  as  a  mystical  progress  towards  God, 
demanding  a  state  of  ecstasy.  It  was  the  chief  task. of  the 
practical  Cabala  to  produce  this  ecstatic  mysticism,  already 
met  with  among  the  Merkabah-travellers  ^  of  the  time  of  the 
Talmud  and  Geonim  ;  hence  this  mental  state  was  especially 
favoured  and  fostered  by  the  Germans.  Alphabetical  and 
numerical  mysticism  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  Eleazar's 
works,  and  is  to  be  regarded  simply  as  means  to  an  end, 
namely,  to  reach  a  state  of  ecstasy  by  the  proper  employment 
of  the  names  of  God  and  of  the  angels,  'a  state  in  which  every 
wall  is  removed  from  the  spiritual  eye.' "  - 

The  origins  of  the  Kabbalistic  tradition  in  southern 
France  (Provence)  and  Spain  are  more  difficult  to 
trace.  The  transmission,  according  to  the  Kab- 
balists  themselves,  can  be  traced  to  Jacob  ha-Nazir 
(beginning  of  the  twelfth  century),  who  initiated 
Abraham  ben  David  of  Posquieres.  The  son  of 
the  latter,  Isaac  the  Blind,  is  jeputed  to  have  been 
the  teacher  of  Azriel  (born  about  1160),  who  played 
an  important  part  in  the  formulation  of  the  specu- 
lative Kabbalah. 

A  rudimentary  form  of  the  speculative  Kabbalah  appears  in 
the  treatise  knovvn  as  Masseket  Aziluth^  which  contains  the 
doctrine  of  the  four  graduated  worlds.  The  book  emphatically 
enjoins  that  the  doctrine  must  be  kept  secret,  and  insists  that  the 
learners  must  be  of  proved  piety.  These  injunctions  suggest 
an  early  date.  The  idea  of  the  Sephiroth  is  presented  simply 
and  unphilosophically,  and  the  angelology  and  representation  of 
Metatron  harmonise  with  the  views  on  these  subjects  prevalent 
in  the  Geonic  period.  The  rudiments  of  the  speculative  system 
are  here,  but  undeveloped.  Possibly,  as  Ginzberg  suggests,  it 
may  be  a  product  of  the  later  Geonic  period. 

^  i.e.  the  mystics  who  travelled  through  the  heavens  in  the 
divine  chariot  {Merkabah).  ^  Ginzberg  in  _/£"  iii.  465. 


THE   MYSTICAL  LITERATURE  243 

A  book  of  fundamental  importance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  speculative  Kabbalah  is  the  work  known 
as  Bahir  ("  Brilliancy  "),  which  apparently  was  com- 
piled in  the  thirteenth  century  in  the  school  of 
Isaac  the  Blind.  In  the  style  of  a  Midrash  on  the 
first  chapters  of  Genesis,  it  adopts  the  method  of 
a  dialogue  between  master  and  disciples.  It  de- 
velops the  doctrine  of  the  Sephiroth  of  the  Sepher 
Yetzirah,  only  here  the  ten  Sephiroth  are  different. 
They  are  divided  into  three  primary  ones — primal 
light,  wisdom,  and  reason — and  seven  secondary 
ones.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  doctrine  of  emana- 
tion is  clearly  enunciated. 

The  world,  according  to  this  book,  is  not  the  result  of  an  act 
of  creation  ex  nihilo.  "  Like  God,  it  existed  from  all  eternity, 
not  only  in  potentiality  but  in  actuality  ;  and  the  Creation 
consisted  merely  in  the  appearance  of  that  which  was  latent 
in  the  first  'Sephirah'^  .  .  .  which  emanated  from  God. 
This  Sephirah  gave  birth  to  '  Hokhmah  '  ('Wisdom'),  from 
which  emanated  Binah  ('Intelligence').  From  these  three, 
which  are  the  superior  'Sephiroth'  .  .  .  and  form  the  primary 
principles  of  the  universe,  emanated,  one  after  another,  the 
seven  inferior  Sephiroth,  from  which  all  material  things  are 
formed.^  .  .  .  The  ten  Sephiroth  are  the  energy  of  God,  the 
forms  in  which  His  being  manifests  itself"-^ 

Other  interesting  points  about  the  book  are  its  insistence  on 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  (by  means  of  which  the  problem 
of  the  suffering  righteous  is  solved),  and  its  enunciation  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  celestial  trinity.  There  are  many  parables  in  the 
book. 

The  most  important  teacher  of  speculative  Kab- 
balah was  a  Spaniard,  Azriel  (i  160-1238),  who 
had  been  trained  in  philosophy,  and  was  prepared 
to  expound  Kabbalistic  doctrine  in  a  manner  that 
v/ould  appeal  to  philosophers. 

^  i.e.  the  primal  light  (rijn  "nt<  "the  hidden  light"). 

2  cp,  Pirke  de  R.  Eliezer,  iii.,  end  ("By  ten  maUimaroih 
(=  Sephiroth)  was  the  world  created,  which  are  reduced  to 
three,"  etc.).  ^  JE  ii.  443. 

R   2 


244  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

"  Starting  from  the  doctrine  of  the  merely  negative  attributes 
of  God,  as  taught  by  the  Jewish  philosophy  of  the  time,  Azriel 
calls  Ciod  the  'En-Soph'  (r^iD^N  =' Endless  One'),  the 
absolutely  Infinite,  that  can  be  comprehended  only  as  the 
negation  of  all  negation.  From  this  definition  of  the  En-Soph, 
Azriel  deduces  the  potential  eternity  of  the  world — the  world 
with  all  its  manifold  manifestations  was  potentially  contained 
within  the  En-Soph  ;  and  this  potentially  existing  universe 
became  a  reality  in  the  act  of  creation.  The  transition  from 
the  potential  to  the  actual  is  a  free  act  of  God  ;  but  it  cannot 
be  called  creation,  since  a  'creatio  ex  nihilo'  is  logically  un- 
thinkable, and  nothing  out  of  which  the  world  could  be  formed 
exists  outside  of  God,  the  En-Soph.  Hence  it  is  not  correct  to 
say  that  God  creates,  but  that  He  irradiates  ;  for,  as  the  sun 
irradiates  warmth  and  light  without  diminishing  its  bulk,  so 
the  En-Soph  irradiates  the  elements  of  the  universe  without 
diminishing  His  power.  These  elements  of  the  universe  are 
the  Sephiroth,  which  Azriel  tries  to  define  in  their  relation  to 
the  En-Soph  as  well  as  to  one  another." 

According  to  the  Kabbalists,  Nachmanides  was 
a  pupil  of  Azriel,  and,  if  so,  certainly  his  most 
important  pupil.  But  this  is  difficult  to  accept. 
For  though  Nachmanides  had  pronounced  mystical 
tendencies,  as  we  have  seen,  yet  in  his  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  he  contradicts  some  of  the 
most  fundamental  tenets  of  Azriel's  system.  Thus 
he  emphasises  creation  "ex  nihilo,"  and  insists  that 
attributes  can  be  assigned  to  God — a  view  which 
is  totally  irreconcilable  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
En-Soph.  Yet  it  is  true  to  say  that  Nachmanides 
played  an  important  part  in  extending  the  influence 
of  Kabbalistic  doctrine.  His  own  tendency  towards 
such  doctrine  was  marked,  as  was  also  the  case 
with  his  most  important  pupil  and  successor, 
Solomon  b.  Abraham  ibn  Adret  (RaSHBa)  (1235- 
13 10),  the  great  Talmudist.  A  distinguished  pupil 
of  Ibn  Adret  was  the  famous  exegete,  Bachya  ben 
Asher  of  Saragossa  (died  1340),  whose  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  did  much  to  spread  Kabbalistic 
doctrine.  Here  the  method  of  the  Kabbalah  (termed 
by  him  the  path  of  light)  is  followed  (together  with 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  245 

that  of  the  Peshat,  Midrash,  and,  to  some  extent, 
philosophical  exegesis),  and  occupies  a  large  space. 
I3y  means  of  it  Bachya  sought  to  penetrate  into 
the  deep  (esoteric)  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  to 
bring  hidden  truths  to  light.  This  work,  fre- 
quently reprinted,  has  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity, 
and  many  super-commentaries  have  been  written 
upon  it. 

Azriel's  system  was  worked  out  completely  in  a 
number  of  Kabbalistic  works  of  the  second  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century  which  have  survived  in  frag- 
mentary form.  Their  aim  was  to  systematise  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bahir  and  of  Azriel.  One  of  the 
most  important  is  a  small  book  known  as  Sephcr 
ha-Temimah  ("  Book  of  Form  ").  Here  the  attempt 
is  made  to  illustrate  the  principle  of  emanation  by 
means  of  the  forms  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  The  doctrine  of  the  Sephiroth  is  syste- 
matised.  They  are  regarded  as  powers  inhering  in 
the  En-Soph,  like  the  limbs  in  the  human  body,  the 
entire  complex  forming  one  indivisible  whole.  They 
are  thus  penetrated  by,  and  are  the  organs  of.  one 
common  will.  In  this  way  the  problem,  which  had 
occupied  the  Kabbalistic  thinkers,  as  to  how  the 
divine  will  was  transmitted  to  the  different  Sephi- 
roth, is  solved.  This  book  also  enunciates,  for  the 
first  time,  the  doctrine  of  double  emanation,  which 
becomes  henceforth  an  integral  part  of  the  Kabba- 
listic system,  and  represents  the  attempt  of  the 
Kabbalists  to  solve  the  problem  of  evil,  without 
falling  into  the  dangers  of  pantheism.  The  doctrine 
imputes  a  double  aspect  to  the  Sephiroth,  a  positive 
and  a  negative.  The  positive  aspect  represents  the 
active  divine  element,  which  produces  all  that  is  good 
— the  energy  that  is  constantly  striving  for  perfec- 
tion ;  while  the  negative  (or  passive)  aspect  corre- 
sponds to  the  finite,  and  represents  the  imperfect 
and    limited.     Evil    is    therefore    rej^arded    as   essen- 


246  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

tially  imperfection,  a  negative  rather  than  a  positive 
element  in  the  universe. 

Another  important  work  belonging  to  this  category 
is  the  Ma'areketh  hd-Elohuth.  Here  Azriel's  system 
is  presented  in  its  most  complete  form. 

While  this  speculative  mysticism,  which  was  con- 
cerned with  strictly  metaphysical  problems — the 
nature  of  God  and  His  relation  to  the  world — was 
being  developed  (from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century 
{o  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth),  another  school 
was  working  out  a  system  from  a  different  point 
of  view,  the  religio-ethical,  laying  all  the  stress  upon 
the  practical  side  of  religion.  Both  systems  were 
striving  to  realise  the  union  of  the  soul  with  God. 
The  speculative  thinkers  endeavoured  to  attain  this 
by  constructing  a  theory  of  God  and  the  universe 
essentially  monistic  in  character,  while  the  other 
school  strove  to  make  the  union  possible  and  prac- 
ticable for  everyday  life. 

Two  important  names  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connexion  : 
Todros  Abulafia  (1234- 1304)  and  Abraham  Abulafia  (1240- 
1291).  The  former  of  these,  a  wealthy  and  influential  Spanish 
Jew,  hberally  supported  Kabbalistic  scholars  and  himself  wrote 
two  Kabbalistic  works,  viz.  Sha''ar  ha-Razim  ("  The  Gate  of 
Secrets"),  a  commentary  on  Psalm  xix.,  and  an  important  book 
entitled  'Otzar  ha-Kabod  ("The  Treasury  of  Glory"),  in  which 
the  Haggadoth  of  the  Talmud  are  interpreted  for  the  first  time 
in  a  Kabbalistic  sense.  Here  quotations  from  the  Zohar  occur 
for  the  first  time.  More  important  still  was  Abraham  Abulafia, 
also  of  Spanish  birth,  who  at  the  age  of  twenty  began  a  life  of 
ceaseless  wandering.  He  went  to  Palestine,  then  to  Italy,  and 
returned  to  Spain,  where  he  became  subject  to  visions,  and  took 
up  the  study  of  the  Sep/ier  Yetzirah  and  its  numerous  com- 
mentaries. This  study  and  the  influence  of  Eleazar  of  Worms 
greatly  affected  him.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  mystical 
study  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  numerals,  vowel-points  and 
accents,  and  especially  to  the  letters  of  the  Divine  Name  (the 
Tetragrammaton).  With  the  aid  of  these  symbols,  combined 
with  the  practice  of  ascetic  rites,  men  could,  he  declared, 
attain  the  heights  of  the  mystical  life.  He  produced  a  book 
called    Sepher  ha-  Yashar  ("  Book   of   the    Righteous "),   and 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  247 

wrote  other  works.  At  one  time  he  gave  himself  out  as  a 
prophet  and  Messiah,  and  created  much  excitement  among  the 
Jewish  masses.  He  abandoned  speculative  Kabbalah  for 
"  prophetical,"  maintaining  that  the  former  was  an  inferior 
degree  of  knowledge.  "The  highest  goal  is  prophetism, 
assuring  men  a  certain  degree  of  community  with  God,"  and 
the  means  are  the  close  study  of  the  names  of  God,  especially 
of  the  Tetragrammaton.  He  also  employed  in  different  ways 
for  mystical  purposes  letter-symbolism.  He  introduced  into 
Jewish  Kabbalah  a  Trinitarian  doctrine  and  desired,  apparently, 
to  win  Christians  to  the  Kabbalistic  faith. 

The  two  movements  converged  in  the  Zohar,  the 
most  important  literary  production  of  Jewish  mysti- 
cism, which  became  the  holy  book  of  the  Jewish 
Kabbalists.  The  name  Zohar,  which  means  "  Bright- 
ness," is  derived  from  Daniel  xii.  3  :  And  they  that 
he  wise  shall  shine  brightly  as  the  brightness  {yazMru 
kezohar)  of  the  firmament.  Written  partly  in  Aramaic 
and  partly  in  Hebrew,  it  is  in  form  a  commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch,  but  in  reality  is  a  compendium  of 
Kabbalistic  theosophy.  It  belongs  to  the  large  class 
of  pseudepigraphic  writings  purporting  to  be  the 
record  of  a  divine  revelation  made  to  R.  Simeon 
b.  Yochai  (second  century  A.D.),  who  is  represented 
as  imparting  this  in  a  series  of  utterances  to  his 
disciples.  In  reality  it  is  a  composite  work,  drav/n 
from  many  sources  (some  old),  and  was  published 
in  practically  its  present  shape  by  Moses  ben  Shem 
Tob  de  Leon  (1250-1305). 

Moses  de  Leon  lived  in  various  parts  of  Spain.  The  question 
as  to  how  far  he  was  responsible  for  the  present  form  of  the 
Zohar  has  been  much  debated.  That  he  "  forged "  the  work 
cannot  be  proved,  but  that  he  had  a  considerable  share  in 
reducing  it  to  its  present  shape  is  probable.  In  doing  this  he 
worked  on  older  materials,  and,  like  other  pseudepigraphic 
writers,  he  may  have  regarded  himself  simply  as  an  instrument 
for  reducing  to  written  form  what  had  long  been  transmitted 
as  a  series  of  traditions. 

This  estimate  is  borne  out  by  the  character  of  the  work, 
which  is  heterogeneous  and  can  hardly  be  the  production,  in 
any  valid  sense,  of  a  single  author. 


248  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Distinct  writings,  too,  are  referred  to  in  the  work,  and 
actually  quoted.  These  are  {a)  ^Idra  rabba  ;  {b)  ^Idra  zuta  ; 
((c)  Matttitiii  ;  i^d)  Midr-ash  ha-ne'-elain  ;  {e)  Rdnya  Mehemna  ; 
(/)  Saba ;  {g)  Raze  de-Razin ;  {h)  Sepher  Hekaloth  ; 
(/)  Sifra  de-Zenicutha  ;  (/)  Sitre  Torah  ;  {Jc)  Tosephta  ; 
(/)    Yanuka} 

Dr.  Broyde,'^  commenting  on  these  features,  says  : 
"The  contents  of  the  Zohar  clearly  indicate  that 
the  work  is  the  production,  not  of  a  single  author 
or  of  a  single  period,  but  of  many  authors,  periods, 
and  civilisations  ;  for  it  contains  the  most  puzzling- 
incongruities  and  irreconcilable  contradictions,  with 
lofty  ideas  and  conceptions  .  .  .  and  also  mystic 
teachings  of  the  Talmudic  period  with  those  of  the 
Geonim  and  later  Cabala."  He  calls  attention  to  a 
passage  {Zohar  iii.  9&)  which  says : 

"  In  the  book  of  Harnnuna  the  elder  we  learn  through  some 
extended  explanations  that  the  earth  turns  upon  itself  in  the 
form  of  a  circle  ;  that  some  are  on  top,  the  others  below  ;  that 
the  creatures  change  in  aspect,  following  the  manner  of  each 
place,  but  keeping  in  the  same  position.  But  there  are  some 
countries  on  the  earth  which  are  lighted,  while  others  are  in 
darkness  ;  and  there  are  others  in  which  there  is  constantly 
day,  or  in  which  at  least  the  night  continues  only  some  instants. 
.  .  .  These  secrets  were  made  known  to  the  men  of  the  secret 
science,  but  not  to  the  geographers." 

Dr.  Broyde  points  out  that  till  the  time  of  Coper- 
nicus the  theory  that  the  earth  revolves  on  its  own 
axis  and  is  a  sphere  was  only  known  to  ancient 
Hindu  philosophy,  and  later,  outside  the  place  of 
its  origin,  in  Persia  in  the  eighth  century,  where 
under  its  influence  many  mystic  sects,  including 
that  of  the  Sufis,  were  founded.  This  movement 
undoubtedly  influenced  the  Jews  of  Persia,  among 
whom  were  some  curious  sects,  and  he  suggests  that 
the  secret  writings  preserved  among  these  sects 
"probably  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Zohar.  ...   In 

^  See  further  below,  p.  251. 
2  Art.  "Zohar"  xwJE  xii.  691. 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  249 

its  peregrinations  from  Persia  to  Spain  the  Zohar 
probably  received  many  additions  and  interpolations, 
among  which  may  have  been  the  various  names  of 
the  Tannaim  and  Amoraim,  as  well  as  the  allusions 
to  historical  events."  Whatever  truth  there  may  or 
may  not  be  in  this  theory,  Persia  doubtless  offered  a 
congenial  home  for  Kabbalistic  ideas.  To  this  day 
Simeon  b.  Yochai  is  the  greatest  figure  among  the 
Rabbis  to  the  Jews  of  Persia. 

The  Zohar,  as  has  been  remarked  already,  sums 
up  the  Kabbalistic  ideas  that  had  been  developed  up 
to  the  time  of  its  appearance.  It  became  not  only 
the  text-book  of  Kabbalistic  doctrine,  but  the 
canonical  book  of  the  Kabbalists.  To  expound  its 
doctrines,  which  do  not  form  a  coherent  system,  but 
are  a  blending  of  ideas  which  do  not  always  har- 
monise, would  require  a  treatise  by  itself.^  It  will 
only  be  possible  here  to  glance  at  one  or  two 
important  points  in  passing.  The  doctrine  of  the 
ten  Sephiroth  is  throughout  assumed  as  axiomatic 
As  in  all  mystical  thought,  the  soul  occupies  a 
dominant  place  in  the  theology  of  the  Zohar,  and 
the  ideas  concerning  it  {e.g.  its  constitution  as  a 
trinity)  reflect  the  influence  of  the  Platonic  psy- 
chology. The  doctrine  of  soul -transmigration  also 
is  taught. 

"  In  the  minds  of  the  Kabbalists,  transmigration  is  a 
necessity  not  alone  on  the  grounds  of  their  particular  theology 
— the  soul  must  reach  the  highest  stage  of  its  evolution 
before  it  can  be  received  again  into  the  eternal  home — but  on 
moral  grounds  as  well.  It  is  a  vindication  of  divine  justice 
to  mankind."  2 

The  doctrine  of  the  four  worlds  also  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  Zoharistic  system.  These  are 
(a)  the  'Azilutic  world  (or  world  of  emanation),  which 
contains  the  Sephiroth  ;    (h)  the    Beriatic   world    (or 

^  See  an  excellent  summary  by  Ginzberg  in /it  iii.  471-479. 
-  i\h&\sox\,  Jewish  Mystidsn'i,  p.  i64f. 


250  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

world  of  creative  ideas),  which  contains  the  souls  of 
the  pious,  the  divine  throne,  and  the  divine  halls ;  (c) 
the  Yeziratic  world  (or  the  world  of  creative  forma- 
tions), which  is  the  abode  of  the  ten  classes  of  angels 
with  their  chiefs,  presided  over  by  Metatron,  who 
was  changed  into  fire  ;  {d)  the  'Asiyyatic  world  (or 
world  of  creative  matter),  in  which  are  the  Ophannim, 
the  angels  that  receive  the  prayers  and  control  the 
actions  of  men,  and  wage  war  against  Sammael,  the 
embodiment  of  evil.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  these  worlds  were  at  first  conceived  realistically, 
but  were  later  interpreted  in  an  idealistic  sense. 

On  its  ethical  side  the  Kabbalah  teaches  that  love 
is  the  highest  relation  of  the  soul  to  God,  transcending 
knowledge  and  will.  Ethics  is,  indeed,  part  of  religion 
to  the  Kabbalists. 

"  The  connexion  between  the  real  and  ideal  wodd  is  brought 
about  by  man,  whose  soul  belongs  to  heaven,  while  his  body  is 
earthy,  Man  connects  the  two  worlds  by  means  of  his  love  to 
God,  which  .  .  .  unites  him  with  God,  The  knowledge  of  the 
law  in  its  ethical  as  well  as  religious  aspects  is  also  a  means 
towards  influencing  the  higher  regions  ;  for  the  study  of  the  law 
means  the  union  of  man  with  the  divine  wisdom.  ,  .  ,  The 
ritual  also  has  a  deeper  mystical  meaning,  as  it  serves  to 
preserve  the  universe  and  to  secure  blessings  for  it."^ 

It  should  be  added  that  the  Zohar  has  certain 
appendices  which  are  attributed  to  its  reputed  author, 
or  to  some  of  his  immediate  disciples,  and  without 
which  it  would  be  incomplete. 

These  are  {a)  Sifra  di  zeni  Hitha  (five  chapters),  in  which  are 
discussed  questions  relating  to  Creation,  such  as  the  transition 
from  the  infinite  to  the  finite,  etc.;  {b)  Idra  rabba,  developing 
and  enlarging  the  preceding  ;  {c)  Idra  zuta,  a  resume  of  the 
two  preceding.  In  these  sections  the  term  "  En-Soph  "  is  not 
applied  to  God — a  mark  of  early  origin.  To  these  larger 
appendices  are  added  the  following  fragments  :  {d)  Raze  de 
Hazin^  dealing  with  the  connexion  of  the  soul  with  the  body, 
etc.;  (<?)  Sepher  Hekaloth^  treating  of  the  seven  heavenly  halls, 

^  Ginzberg,  op.  cit.  ibid. 


THE  MYSTICAL  LITERATURE  251 

Paradise  and  Hell ;  (/)  Ra'ya  mehemna^  containing  a  con- 
versation between  Moses,  Elijah,  and  Simeon  ben  Yochai  on  the 
allegorical  significance  of  the  Mosaic  commandments  and  the 
Rabbinical  injunctions  ;  {g)  Sitre  Torali,  dealing  with  a  Aariety 
of  Kabbalistic  topics  ;  {h)  Midrash  ha-ne'e/ain,  giving  mystical 
explanations  of  various  passages  of  Scripture  ;  (/)  Saba  (  =  "  Old 
Age  '■),  containing  a  conversation  between  the  prophet  Elijah  and 
Simeon  ben  Yochai  on  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  (trans- 
migration of  souls)  ;  (7)  Yaiiuka  (=  "child"),  written  in  the 
name  of  a  child  of  Hamnuna  Saba  (hence  the  title),  giving 
injunctions  about  the  importance  of  ritual  washing  of  the  hands 
before  meals  ;  {k)  Tosephta  and  (/)  MathnitJuii^  sketching  the 
doctrines  connected  with  emanation  (the  Sephiroth),  etc. 

Besides  the  Zohar  proper,  there  is  a  Zohar  Chadash 
(=  "New  Zohar")  on  Canticles,  and  a  series  of 
Tikkimim  in  the  style  of  the  original  work. 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  Zohar  is  in  form  a 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  In  this  connexion  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  four  types  of  exegesis  are  admitted 
in  the  commentation,  or,  at  any  rate,  four  distinct  methods  of 
interpretation,  viz.  Pp.shat^  Rcjuez  (=  "  allusion,"  typological 
sense,  allegory),  Derash,  and  Sod  (==  "secret,"  esoteric  or 
mystical  sense),  the  initials  of  these  four  terms  making  Pardes 
=  "  Paradise."  It  is  possible  that  the  Christian  mode  of 
exegesis,  which  was  well  known  to  the  Spanish  Jews,  may  have 
influenced  the  method  of  the  Zohar.  The  Christian  method 
interpreted  Scripture  in  a  fourfold  sense,  viz.  the  historical  or 
literal,  the  tropological  or  moral,  the  allegorical,  and  the 
anagogical.^ 

The  publication  of  the  Zohar  took  place  probably 
in  the  opening  years  of  the  fourteenth  century.  It 
soon  gained  wide  recognition,  though  not  without 
some  opposition,  and  Kabbalistic  study  grew.  A 
great  impetus  was  given  to  the  spread  of  the  doctrine 
when  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  took 
place  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  (1492).  The 
national    misfortune   stimulated    such    studies    which 

^  This    method    had    long    before   been   formulated,  by   the 
Venerable  Bede  in  the  eighth,  and  by  Rhabanus  Maurus  in  the 
*  ninth,  century. 


252  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

held  out  to  their  votaries  the  hope  of  discovering,  by 
their  means,  a  way  of  deliverance  from  the  national 
suffering.  Kabbalists  were  active  in  Palestine  and 
Egypt  and  elsewhere.  Solomon  Alkabiz  (author  of 
the  Sabbath  hymn,  still  sung  eveiy  week  in  the  syna- 
gogues, "  Come,  my  Beloved,  to  meet  the  Sabbath  ") 
was  a  well-known  Kabbalist  who  flourished  at  Safed, 
in  Palestine,  .in  the  sixteenth  century.  Safed,  in  fact, 
became  a  centre  for  the  movement.  Even  Joseph 
Karo,  the  famous  Talmudist  and  codifier  of  the 
Shulchan  Aruk,  who  died  at  Safed  in  1575,  though 
not  a  Kabbalist  in  the  strict  sense,  was  influenced  by 
Kabbalistic  ideas.  He,  in  conjunction  with  Alkabiz, 
gathered  around  him  a  circle  which  endeavoured  by 
stringent  ascetic  practices  to  induce  a  state  of  ecstasy 
in  which  they  hoped  to  receive  heavenly  revelations 
and  to  behold  visions  of  angels.  A  pupil  of  these 
two  leaders,  Moses  ben  Jacob  of  Cordovero  (1522- 
70),  was  a  famous  Kabbalist,  and  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  best  representative  of  the  early 
Kabbalah,  and,  next  to  Azriel,  the  most  important 
speculative  thinker  produced  by  the  school.  He 
wrote  a  well-known  work  called  *'  The  Garden  "  (Jia- 
Pardes). 

A  new  and  important  development  in  Kabbalah 
was  initiated  by  Isaac  Luria  (1533-72).  Luria  intro- 
duced the  doctrine  that  all  that  exists  is  composed 
of  substance  and  appearance.  According  to  this 
extremely  subjective  view,  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
objective  cognition.  With  the  spread  of  the  doc- 
trines of  this  school  a  good  deal  of  superstitious 
practice  went  hand  in  hand,  such  as  the  writing  of 
amulets,  conjuration  of  devils,  the  use  of  mystic 
numbers  and  letters  for  certain  purposes. 

Prominent  among  Luria's  pupils  were  Chayim 
Vital  and  Israel  Saruk,  who  were  great  propagandists 
of  the  new  doctrine.  As  a  result  a  considerable 
Kabbalistic  school  grew  up  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth 


THE   MYSTICAL   LITERATURE  253 

century,  and  traces  of  its  influence  still  remain  there. 
But  it  was  also  attacked  by  Italian  scholars. 

Vital's  son,  Samuel  Vital  Chayim,  together  with 
Abraham  Azulai,  did  much  to  spread  Luria's  Kabba- 
listic  doctrine.  They  introduced  an  ascetic  mode  of 
life  (mystical  meditations  on  prayer,  vigils,  frequent 
ritual  bathings,  and  penance),  which  had  a  noble  side 
in  the  emphasis  laid  on  a  pure  life,  philanthropy,  the 
practice  of  brotherly  love  and  kindness. 

Finally,  in  the  eighteenth  century  there  grew  up 
among  the  Jews  of  Poland  a  remarkable  movement 
known  as  "  Chassidism,"  which,  though  accompanied 
by  a  good  deal  of  superstition,  was  essentially  a 
religious  protest  against  a  hard  and  lifeless  Rab- 
binical formalism. 

The  Jewish  Kabbalah  also  exercised  a  considerable  influence 
in  the  Christian  world.  Through  Reuchlin  (1455-1522)  it 
helped  to  leaven  religious  movements  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  and  was  diligently  studied  by  Christian  scholars 
during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  It  is  worth 
noting  in  this  connexion  that  a  remarkable  approximation  to 
the  Christian  tenets  regarding  the  fall  of  man  developed  in  the 
Kabbahstic  literature  that  grew  up  after  the  publication  of  the 
Zohar.  Starting  from  the  ancient  idea  of  Adam's  original 
corporeal  and  spiritual  excellence,  the  later  Kabbalists  pro- 
pounded the  view  that  originally  all  souls  were  combined  in  him. 
It  was  this  archetypal  man  whose  whole  nature  was  poisoned 
by  the  venom  of  the  serpent,  and  with  him  all  Nature,  which 
then  became  susceptible  to  the  powers  of  evil.  Human  nature 
was  darkened,  and  man  received  a  corporeal  body  which 
was  weakened  and  deprived  of  its  original  excellence.  His 
whole  nature  sank  to  a  lower  plane,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
'Asiyyatic  world,  of  which  man  had  been  lord  and  master,  was 
contracted  and  coarsened.  Even  the  higher  worlds  were 
affected  in  a  similar  manner.  In  this  way  the  Kabbalists 
explain  the  presence  of  physical  and  moral  evil  in  the  world. 
Here  again  the  Kabbalists  were  only  developing  and  elaborating 
ancient  doctrine.  Thus  the  sin  of  Adam,  as  affecting  the 
destinies  of  the  whole  human  race,  is  emphasised  in  early  Jewish 
apocalyptic  (2  Esdras),  as  well  as  in  early  Christian,  literature. 

Various  judgements  have  been  passed  upon  the 
Jewish  Kabbalah  doctrines  and  literature.     Some  of 


254  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

their  most  severe  critics  are,  and  have  been  in  the 
past,  Jewish  scholars  who  by  temperament  and 
training  were  naturally  antipathetic  to  any  forms  of 
mystical  thought.  The  unlovely  features  of  the 
whole  literature  have  been  seized  upon — its  weird 
and  fantastic  ideas,  its  irrationalism,  and  its  super- 
stitious elements — in  order  to  discredit  the  whole. 
But  this,  as  Dr.  Abelson  remarks,  "is  really  an 
unfair  criticism,  seeing  that  it  leaves  totally  out  of 
account  the  preponderating  mass  of  true  poetry  and 
spirituality  which  inhere  in  all  parts  of  Jewish  mystical 
speculation.  .  .  .  Nowhere  in  Jewish  literature  is  the 
idea  of  prayer  raised  to  such  a  pitch  of  sublimity  as 
it  is  in  the  lives  and  writings  of  the  Jewish  mystics. 
If  it  is  true  to  say  that  Judaism  here  and  there 
suffers  from  too  large  an  element  of  formalism  and 
legalism  and  externalism,  it  is  equally  true  to  say 
that  many  of  these  drawbacks  are  corrected,  toned 
down  by  the  contributions  of  mysticism."  ^  Some 
of  the  most  exquisite  prayers  and  liturgical  poems 
of  the  synagogue  Liturgy  are  the  productions  of  the 
Kabbalists.  By  their  sheer  beauty  and  devotional 
power  they  have  won  their  way  into  practically 
universal  use  in  the  synagogue. 


IV 

PHILOSOPHY  AND   ETIHCS 

[Literature  :  Dr.  Philipp  Bloch,  Die  jiidische  Religions- 
philosophie  (in  Winter  und  Wiinsche,  ii.  pp.  699-793);  Isaac 
Husik,  A  History  of  MedicEval  Jewish  Philosophy  (Jewish 
Publication  Society  of  America) ;  the  article  "Philosophy" 
(Jewish)  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  Religion  mid  Ethics, 
and  the  relevant  articles,  under  the  personal  names,  \xiJE  ;  and 
for  Judah  ha-Levi's  Kitab  al  Khazari,  the  edition  (English 
translation,  with  a  valuable  introduction)  by  Dr.  H.  Hirschfeld 


Jewish  Mysticism,  p.  12. 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  255 

(London,  1905);  the  article  "Ethics"  in  JE  v,  245  ff.;  on 
Bachya,  the  article  m  JE  ii.  446  f.;  Bachya's  Duties  of  the 
Heart,  English  translation  by  E.  Collins  (London,  1903)  ; 
J.'  H.  Hertz  (now  Chief  Rabbi),  Bachya^  The  Jewish  Thomas  a 
Kejupis  (1898)  ;  cp.  also  L  Abrahams,  Short  History  of  Jewish 
Literattcre,  chap,  xix.] 

"The  Jewish  religion,"  says  Dr.  Hirschfeld,  "is,  by 
its  nature,  opposed  to  philosophic  pursuits  and  meta- 
physical speculation  in  particular.  Yet,  in  spite  of 
this,  mediaeval  Jewish  literature  has  a  chapter  on 
religious  philosophy  which  is  as  extensive  as  it  is 
profound."  ^  The  causes  which  led  to  this  remark- 
able development  are  to  be  traced,  as  Dr.  Hirschfeld 
suggests,  to  the  fact  that  the  Jews  who  were  living 
under  Moslim  rule  were  brought  into  contact  with 
the  movement  which  stimulated  the  scientific  spirit, 
and  resulted  in  the  eager  pursuit  of  such  sciences  as 
astronomy,  mathematics,  and  medicine.  A  further 
cause  was  the  influence  of  Moslim  theology,  which, 
owing  to  a  variety  of  conflicting  factors,  had  developed 
a  metaphysical  side  ;  and  this  reacted  on  Judaism. 

The  Arab  philosophy  became  systematic  only 
when  Greek  philosophical  thought,  represented  by 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  had  been  made  accessible  in 
Arabic  to  the  Mohammedan  theologians.  "  Philo- 
sophy, called  to  the  aid  of  religion,  produced  the 
aid  of  Kalam  (speculative  theology),  and  a  class  of 
theologians  who  styled  themselves  Mutakallims. 
The  latter  founcj  themselves  compelled  to  supplement 
the  teaching  of  the  Koran  by  philosophic  demonstra- 
tions of  the  existence  of  God,  His  attributes  and 
character  as  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe.' 

The  first  to  apply  to  Jewish  theology  the  philo- 
sophical methods  of  the  Arabs  was  Saadya  (892- 
942),  to  whom  reference  has  already  been  made  in 
a  former  section.     Brilliantly  gifted,  Saadya  excelled 

^  Introduction  to  ha-Levi's  Khazari,  p.  i. 
2  Hirschfeld,  ut  cit.  supra. 


256  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

in  culture  all  his  Jewish  contemporaries.  At  the 
age  of  thirty-six  (in  928)  this  Egyptian  Jew  was 
summoned  to  preside  as  Gaon  over  the  famous 
Academy  of  Sura,  in  Babylonia.  He  was  the  great 
protagonist  for  Rabbinical  Judaism  against  its  mortal 
foes,  the  Karaites.  The  latter  appealed  to  the  text  of 
the  Bible  to  justify  their  rejection  of  the  Rabbinical 
pt)sitions.  Saadya  determined,  therefore,  to  make 
the  Bible  accessible  in  the  vernacular  (Arabic),  and 
so  produced  his  Arabic  translation  of  the  Scriptures, 
adding  notes.  This  version  won  immediate  favour, 
and  displaced,  in  the  synagogues,  the  old  Aramaic 
Targum,  which  had  hitherto  been  read  with  the 
original  Hebrew.  Saadya's  version,  thus  publicly  read, 
became  a  potent  factor  in  impregnating  the  Jewish 
spirit  with  Arabic  culture. 

Saadya  may  be  regarded  as  the  creator  of  a  Jewish 
philosophy  of  religion.  His  great  work  in  this  depart- 
ment, completed  in  933,  was  written  in  Arabic,  Kitah 
al- Amanat  wal-Ptikadnb  ("  Book  of  Creeds  and  Doc- 
trines '')} 

This  is  the  first  systematic  treatment  on  a  philosophic  found- 
ation of  the  doctrines  of  Judaism.  Saadya  modelled  his 
method  on  the  Mutazillite  Kalavi.  The  first  two  sections  deal 
with  the  metaphysical  problems  of  the  creation  of  the  world  (l), 
and  the  unity  of  the  Creator  (2).  In  the  succeeding  sections  the 
following  themes  are  treated  of:  The  Jewish  theory  of  revela- 
tion (3),  doctrines  of  faith  concerning  the  divine  justice  (4), 
and  those  concerned  with  merit  and  demerit  (5).  Then  follow 
sections  on  the  soul  and  death  (6),  the  insurrection  of  the 
dead  (7),  which,  according  to  the  author,  is  closely  connected 
with  tlie  theory  of  the  Messianic  redemption  (8).  A  concluding 
section  (9)  deals  with  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  the 
future  life.  An  appendix  (10)  follows  on  the  importance  of 
moral  conduct  based  on  right  behef.  This  last  section  is 
really  a  system  of  ethics. 

^  Better  known  under  the  Hebrew  title  mm  n^:in«  -120,  the 
title  given  to  the  Hebrew  translation  by  Judah  ibn  Tibbon. 
Another  Hebrew  version  is  cited  at  length  in  The  Ethical 
Treatises  of  Berachya^  ed.  by  H.  Gollancz  (1902). 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  257 

Saadya  also  wrote  an  Arabic  translation  of,  and 
commentary^  on,  the  mystical  book  Sepher  Yetzirah, 
which  he  regarded  as  a  genuine  work  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham.  In  this  work  he  is  not  influenced  by  the 
speculative  theology  of  the  Kalam.  Here,  while 
regarding  this  (as  he  thought)  venerable  work  as 
interesting  and  worthy  of  deep  study,  he  evidently 
did  not  look  upon  it  as  a  source  for  the  theory  of 
Judaism.  He  also  wrote  numerous  other  works  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  (on  philological  and  Halakic 
questions),  and  compiled  a  Siddur  or  Hebrew  Prayer 
Book  (with  explanations  in  Arabic),  and  composed 
liturgical  poems  (in  Hebrew). 

A  contemporary  of  Saadya,  who  cites  him,  though 
himself  not  referred  to  by  Saadya,  is  the  Karaite 
Al-Kirkisani,  whose  work  (in  a  fragmentary  con- 
dition) has  recently  been  made  available  for  scholars.^ 
Kirkisani  was  apparently  well  versed  not  only  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible  and  the  works  of  the  older  Karaite 
teachers,  as  well  as  the  Kalam,  but  was  also  acquainted 
with  the  Mishnah  and  Talmud  and  the  Rabbinical 
Prayer  Book.  He  was  also  familiar  with  the  tenets 
of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  with  the  beliefs  of 
Christians,  Samaritans,  and  Moslims.  He  seems  to 
have  written  a  number  of  works  (only  fragments  of 
which  survive),  the  principal  bearing  the  title  Book  of 
Lights  and  Lighthouses,  a  sort  of  encyclopaedia  with 
nearly  500  chapters,  dealing  with  a  variety  of  subjects, 
historical,  philosophical,  polemical,  exegetical,  ritual, 
and  legal.  He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  various 
books  of  the  Bible,  and  a  treatise  on  the  unity  of 
God.  Specimens  of  his  philosophical  treatment  are 
given  by  Dr.  Hirschfeld,  who  shows  ^  that  he  deals 

1  Arabic  title  Tafsir  Kitab  al  Mabadi.  It  has  been  edited 
with  a  French  translation  by  Lambert  (Paris,  1891).  A  Hebrew 
translation  exists  in  MS. 

2  By  Dr.  Hirschfeld,  Qirqisani  Studies  (Jews'  College 
Publications,  No.  6,  London,  1918).  '  op.  cit.  p.  19. 

S 


258  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

with  ''the  principal  doctrines  which  one  would  seek 
in  a  Jewish  philosophy  of  rehgion." 

These  are  "the  existence  of  God,  His  unity  and  eternity, 
the  refutation  of  the  eternity  of  time  and  matter,  and  the  divme 
attributes  of  the  Creator  of  the  world  and  His  omnipotence. 
The  BibHcal  anthropomorphisms  are  discussed  by  the  author 
in  Mutazzilite  style  later  on  in  one  of  the  canons  of  exegesis. 
Human  free-will  is  alluded  to  in  a  passing  remark.  Although 
all  this  is  gained  by  direct  deductions  from  Biblical  passages, 
the  author  shows  liimself  a  true  follower  of  the  Mutazzilite 
Kalam,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  human  free-will  occupies  a 
prominent  position.  His  whole  attitude  in  regarding  reason  as 
the  mainspring  of  metaphysical  as  well  as  of  physical  knowledge 
is  Mutazzilite.  In  his  doctrine  of  human  free-will  he  is  entirely  in 
accord  with  Saadya,  and  even  uses  the  same  term  to  express  it." 

Saadya  had  not  been  dead  much  more  than  a 
generation  when  there  arose  in  the  East  "  the  greatest 
philosophic  genius  the  Mohammedan  world  had  pro- 
duced," the  famous  Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna)  (980-1037). 
His  writings,  which  were  brought  to  Spain  about  a 
century  after Jtheir  publication,  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  Jewish  thought  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

A  Latin  translation  of  his  philosophical  work  Al-Shefa 
("  Healing")  was  prepared  with  the  aid  of  Jewish  interpreters, 
and  frequently  used  by  Jewish  writers.  Another  smaller 
work,  entitled  The  Healing  of  the  Soul,  was  translated  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  Of  his  medical  treatises,  the  chief, 
called  The  Cafton — a  colossal  work — was  for  centuries  used 
in  its  Latin  form  as  a  text-book  in  European  universities. 
Avicenna  was  a  great  master  of  logic  and  metaphysics.  A 
thorough  Aristotelian,  he  taught  that  matter,  "  the  principle  of 
individuation,  does  not  directly  emanate  from  the  Godhead, 
although  it  is,  in  its  primal  origin,  eternal,  and  includes  within 
itself  all  possibilities  of  development.  .  .  .  The  first  and  only 
immediate  product  of  God  ...  is  the  world-soul  or  world- 
intelligence,  which  unwinds  an  endless  chain  of  creation  through- 
out all  the  celestial  spheres  down  to  the  earth.  The  cause  that 
produces,  however,  must  also  conserve,  for  cause  and  effect  are 
identical ;  from  which  it  follows  that  the  world  itself,  like  God, 
must  be  eternal."  ^  His  theory,  hoAvever,  is  not  completely 
consistent.  It  sQems  that  his  Neoplatonic  view  of  evolution 
gradually  led  him  to  mysticism. 

^  JE  ii.  351  (article  "Avicenna"). 


•      .  PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  259 

Avicenna's  reputation  was  so  high  that  his  writings 
were  eagerly  studied  by  Jews. 

The  outstanding  name  among  the  Jewish  Neo- 
platonic  philosophers  is  that  of  Solomon  ibn  Gebirol 
(1021-58  or  1070),  famous  also  as  a  poet.^  He  had 
much  to  do  with  the  diffusion  of  Neoplatonism  in 
Europe,  his  works  enjoying  a  wide  popularity  in 
Latin  among  Christians.  His  main  philosophic  work, 
the  Arabic  original  of  w^hich  is  lost,  has  survived 
partly  in  a  Hebrew  translation  w^ith  the  title  Mekor 
chayyim  ("Fount  of  Life"),  but  as  a  whole  exists 
only  in  the  twelfth-century  Latin  translation  Fons 
VitcB.  The  author  is  here  styled  "  Avicebron,"  who 
was  supposed  to  be  a  Christian  scholastic  till  in  1848 
Solomon  Munk  established  his  true  identity. 

In  this  work  Gebirol  treats  philosophic  problems  without  any 
pronounced  theological  preconceptions.  In  a  similar  way 
Isaac  Israeli  (died  953),  a  famous  physician,  and  the  first 
known  philosophic  writer  of  the  Arab  period  among  the  Jews, 
treated  philosophic  questions  apart  from  theology.  He  was 
also  a  Neoplatonist. 

Though  the  Fons  Vitce  influenced  the  Jewish  Kabbalah, 
especially  in  its  theory  of  emanations,  it  did  not  exercise  any 
marked  effect  upon  Jewish  scholastic  development,  and,  in  fact, 
was  more  influential  among  Christian  than  Jewish  philosophers. 

A  collection  of  moral  maxims  known  as  The  Choice  of 
Pea^'ls^  which  was  a  favourite  ethical  handbook  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  is  also  attributed  to  Gebirol's  authorship,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  A  more  important  and  highly  original  ethical 
treatise,  which  is  probably  the  work  of  Gebirol,  and  was  written 
at  Saragossa  about  the  year  1045,  is  the  treatise  entitled 
The  Improvemoit  of  Moral  Qualities  (ed.  in  Arabic  and 
English  by  S.  vS.  Wise,  New  York,  1901).  On  this  see  fE 
vi.  529. 

A  highly  popular  ethical  treatise,  which  in  its 
Hebrew  form  has  gone  through  about  fifty  editions, 
was  produced  by  Bachya  ibn  Pakuda  of  Saragossa 

^  Gebirol  was  a  Spanish  Jew.     From   this  time  Spain  was 
the  chief  seat  of  Arab  culture  among  the  Jews. 
-  English  translation  by  B.  H.  Asher  (London,  1859). 

S   2 


26o  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

(about  1050-1100).  This  is  known  from  the  title  of 
the  Hebrew  translation  produced  by  Judah  ibn 
Tibbon  (1167)  as  The  Duties  of  the  Heart  (Choboth 
ha-Lehahoth)} 

Bachya  is  an  original  thinker  of  high  rank,  well  acquainted 
with  the  entire  philosophical  and  scientific  literature  of  the 
Arabs,  as  well  as  that  of  Jewish  writers.  He  was  also  a  man  of 
deep  personal  piety  as  well  as  a  philosopher,  and  is  moved  by 
deep  religious  feeling.  The  influence  of  Neoplatonic  ideas  and 
Sufi  mysticism  is  apparent  in  the  book,  though  these  elements 
are  never  allowed  to  cloud  the  clear  enunciation  of  a  pure 
Jewish  monotheism.  T/ie  Duties  of  the  Heart  represents  an 
attempt  "  to  present  the  Jewish  faith  as  being  essentially  a 
great  spiritual  truth  founded  on  Reason,  Revelation  (the 
written  Law),  and  Tradition,  all  stress  being  at  the  same  time 
laid  on  the  willingness  and  the  joyful  readiness  of  the  God- 
loving  heart  to  perform  life's  duties."^  Though  not  formally 
a  metaphysical  treatise,  the  work  contains  a  compendium  of 
religious  philosophy.^ 

Neoplatonic  doctrines  were  also  diffused  by  the 
translation  into  Hebrew  of  non-Jewish  writings  of 
this  school  of  thought.  In  some  cases  such  works 
have  survived  only  in  the  Hebrew  translation. 

About  this  time  (the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century)  a  reaction  against  extreme  Aristotelian 
teachings,  which  had  been  growing  among  the 
Mohammedans,  came  to  a  head  in  the  writings  of 
the  great  Arab  philosopher  and  theologian  Al- 
Ghazali  (born  in  Khorasan  1058,  died  there  11 11). 
His  most  important  works  are  The  Aims  of  Philo- 
sophers, The  Destruction  of  Philosophy,  and  The 
Revival  of  the  Science  of  Religion.  His  writings 
exercised  considerable  influence  over  Jews,  especially 
in  the  form  of  Hebrew  translations.'^ 

^  The  original  Arabic  text,  under  the  title  Al-hiddjci'  ildfanV 
id  al-quliib,  has  been  edited,  with  an  introduction,  by  A.  S. 
Yahuda  (Leyden,  1912).  For  an  English  version,  cp.  p.  255 
above.  '-^  JE  ii.  447  (article  "  Bahya"). 

^  See  the  full  exposition  of  Bachya's  system  \nJE  ii.  447-454. 

*  These  translations  began  to  be  made  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth   century. 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  261 

The  famous  Judah  ha-Levi,^  though  most  eminent 
as  a  poet,  also  did  important  work  in  the  domain  of 
philosophy.  He  occupied  much  the  same  position 
in  Jewish  religious  philosophy  as  that  occupied  by 
Al-Ghazali  in  Islam.  Indeed,  he  seems  to  have 
been  influenced  by  the  latter.  His  views  are  ex- 
pounded in  the  well-known  apologetic  work,  written 
originally  in  Arabic,  but  circulating  also  in  the  form 
of  a  Hebrew  translation  by  Judah  ibn  Tibbon,  the 
Kitah  al-Khazari.  (Best  edition,  Arabic  original  and 
Hebrew  translation,  by  H.  Hirschfeld,  Leipzig,  1887; 
for  English  translation,  r/.  p.  254  above.) 

This  famous  apology  for  Judaism  is  cast  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  the  pagan  king  of  the  Chazars  and  a  Jew  who 
had  been  summoned  to  instruct  him  in  the  tenets  of  the  Jewish 
religion. 

The  main  principle  of  the  treatise  is  to  show  that  revealed 
religion  is  superior  to  natural  rehgion  ;  in  other  words, 
revelation,  not  speculative  philosophy,  is  the  only  trustworthy 
guide  to  a  real  knowledge  of  God.  He  defends  the  Jewish 
Scriptural  doctrine  of  Creation  ("ex  nihilo '")  against  the 
Aristotelian  view  of  the  eternity  of  matter.  Judah  also  dis- 
cusses the  questions  relative  to  the  attributes  of  God  and 
anthropomorphism. 

The  apologetic  character  of  the  book  is  revealed  in  the 
second  Arabic  title,  which  runs  :  Book  of  Argumejit  and 
De/no?is(7'afion  in  Aid  of  the  Despised  Faith.  It  is  essentially 
not  only  a  defence  of  revealed  religion  against  philosophy,  but 
a  defence  of  traditional  Judaism  against  assailants  such  as  the 
Karaites.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  third  part  is  devoted 
to  a  vindication  of  the  Talmud.  It  was  translated  into  Hebrew 
not  more  than  thirty  years  after  its  publication  by  Judah  ibn 
Tibbon,  and  again  later,  and  many  commentaries  have  been 
written  on  it. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  Neoplatonic 
philosophy  among  the  Jews  was  represented  by 
Abraham  bar  Chiyya  ha-Nasi  ("Abraham  Judaeus"), 
often  called  "  Savasorda."  An  eminent  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer,  he  also  wrote  on  ethics  and 
philosoph}'. 

^  Born  at  Toledo  about  1085,  died  in  the  East  after  1 140  {cp.]i.  34). 


262  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

A  profoundly  religious  and  ethical  work  of  his  (written  in 
Hebrew)  is  Mediiatio7i  of  the  Soul  {Hegyon  /m-nephesh).  In 
philosophy  he  followed  Ibn  Gebirol,  maintaining  the  Neo- 
platonic  view  that  "matter,  being  void  of  all  reality,  requires 
form  to  give  it  existence.  Now  the  union  of  these  two  by  the 
will  of  God,  which  brings  them  from  a  state  of  potentiality 
into  one  of  actuality,  is  creation,  time  itself  being  simultaneously 
produced  with  the  created  things."  ^ 

To  this  school  of  philosophic  thought  belong  also 
the  poet  Moses  ibn  Ezra  of  Granada  (died  1139),  the 
author  of  a  treatise  in  Arabic  called  The  Garden  (of 
which  only  fragments  have  survived) ;  his  contem- 
porary, Joseph  ibn  Zaddik  of  Cordova  (died  1149), 
author  of  a  Neoplatonic  work  which  has  been  pre- 
served only  in  a  Hebrew  translation  called  Microcosm 
{'61am  kdtdn) ;  and  the  famous  Bible  commentator 
Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (about  1100-1167). 

Strict  Aristotelianism  was  revived  in  Jewish  philo- 
sophy in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  by 
Abraham  ibn  Baud  ha- Levi  (RABaD  I.)  of  Toledo 
(11 10-80),  who  was  also  an  astronomer  and  historian. 
His  philosophical  work,  The  Sublime  Faith,  written 
in  Arabic,  has  been  preserved  in  two  Hebrew  trans- 
lations. 

Though  not  an  original  thinker,  he  is  important  as  being 
"the  first  to  introduce  that  phase  of  philosophy  which  is 
generally  attributed  to  Maimonides,  and  which  differs  from 
former  systems  of  philosophy  mainly  in  its  more  thorough 
systematic  form  derived  from  Aristotle."'-^  He  considered  the 
Arabic  commentators  Alfarabi  and  Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna)  to  be 
the  only  true  philosophers,  and  he  constantly  attacks  Gebirol, 
who  represented  Neoplatonic  views.  True  philosophy,  accord- 
ing to  Ibn  Daud,  is  an  aid  to  revealed  religion — where  they 
seem  to  contradict  one  another  a  mode  of  reconciling  them  can 
be  found.  He  was,  however,  unable  to  reconcile  the  Aristo- 
telian doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  matter  with  the  Biblical  view 
of  Creation,  which  implies  creatio  ex  nihilo.     His  doctrine  of 


^  JE   i.    109  {s.v.   '  Abraham  bar  Hiyya";    see   the  whole 
article). 

^  JE  i.  loi  {s.v.  "Abraham  ibn  Daud"). 


PHILOSOPHY  AND   ETHICS  263 

God  is  interesting.  God,  as  being  the  Prime  Mover  of  all 
motion,  is  Himself  motionless,  and,  being  infinite,  must  be 
absolutely  One  and  Unique.  He  also  discusses  the  problems 
of  human  free-will  and  predestination. 

An  important  Arabian  philosopher,  who  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  Jewish  philosophy,  and 
belongs  to  the  twelfth  century,  must  be  mentioned 
in  this  connexion.  This  was  Averroes,  or,  to  give 
him  his  Arabic  name,  Abul  VValid  Muhammed  ibn 
Ahmad  ibn  Roshd  of  Cordova  (1126-98).  Like 
Avicenna,  Averroes  wrote  an  original  compendium 
of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  also  the  so-called 
"  Middle  Commentaries  "  (which  follow  the  text),  and 
other  works.  His  writings  were  greatly  admired  in 
Jewish  circles,  and  owe  their  preservation  (either  in 
Hebrew  translations  or  Hebrew  transliterations  of 
the  Arabic  text)  to  this  fact.  In  Mohammedan 
circles  they  were  extensively  condemned.  His 
writings  were  familiar  to  Maimonides,  who,  however, 
cannot  be  called  his  disciple,  though  often  in  agree- 
ment with  him.  Some  of  his  other  original  works 
also  influenced  Jewish  writers.  One  on  The  Relation 
of  Faith  to  Knowledge  is  extant  in  an  anonymous 
Hebrew  translation  (dated  1340),  and  another  has 
the  title  The  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  the  Method  of 
Proof  touching  the  Principles  of  Religion.  Both  were 
known  to  Kolonymus  ben  Kalonymus  and  Simon 
Duran  in  1423.  More  famous  is  his  reply  to 
Ghazali's  attack  on  the  philosophers.  Averroes 
called  his  reply  A  Confutation  of  the  Confutation. 
Kalonymus,  the  son  of  David  ben  Todros,  translated 
it  into  Hebrew  in  1328.^  The  influence  of  Averroes 
was  all-powerful  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  after 
that  rapidly  declined.     Levi  ben  Gerson  and  Moses 

^  This  Hebrew  translation  was  rendered  into  Latin  by  a 
Neapolitan  physician,  also  named  Kalonymus  (ben  David),  and 
published  in  Venice  in  1327. 


264  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Narboni  may  be  regarded  as  followers  of  his  philo- 
sophy. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  Averroes  was  much  studied  in 
Jewish  circles  ;  Maimonides  frequently  refers  to  him,  often  to 
differ  from  his  positions.  Many  commentaries  on,  and  trans- 
lations of,  his  writings  were  made  later  in  Hebrew  ;  and  a 
number  of  original  writings  in  Hebrew  were  inspired  by  his 
works.  The  first  to  introduce  his  philosophy  to  Jewish 
literature  was  Samuel  ibn  Tibbon  (the  translator  of  Maimonides' 
Guide),  who  published  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  an  EttcyclopcEciia  of  Philosophy  which  mainly  consists 
of  extracts  from  Averroes.  Translations  (into  Hebrew)  of  his 
works  appeared  in  1232,  1260,  1284,  and  1298.  A  new  series 
appeared  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the 
second  half  of  that  century,  which  may  be  regarded  as  "the 
golden  age  of  Averroism  among  the  Jews,"  witnessed  the 
production  of  many  original  treatises,  inspired  by  the  study  of 
Averroes,  among  the  Jews.  Levi  ben  Cierson  (Gersonides)  and 
Moses  of  Narbonne  (Messer  Vidal)  are  especially  prominent  in 
this  connexion.  Mention  may  also  be  made  here  of  the 
ethical  and  rhetorical  work  by  Jedayah  Penini  (1261-1321) 
entitled  Bechinath  ^Olam  ("Examiijation  of  the  World")  and 
his  ^Iigge7'eth  ha-Hithnatzeluth  ("  Letter  on  Self-exculpation  "), 
defending  philosophy  against  the  attack  of  Solomon  b.  Adret, 
and  the  commentaries  of  Joseph  Caspi  on  ^Maimonides'  Guide 
— all  influenced  by  Averroes. 

The  greatest  Jewish  philosopher  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  Moses  ben  Maimun,  commonly  called  "  Mai- 
monides" (i  135-1204),  was  a  younger  contemporary 
both  of  Averroes  and  Abraham  ibn  Daud,  the  latter 
of  whom  he  frequently  follows.  Maimonides,  start- 
ing with  the  fundamental  conviction  that  reason, 
being  a  gift  of  God,  cannot  be  irreconcilable  with 
religion,  or  contradict  it,  sought  to  show  that  the 
highest  form  of  philosophy,  which  he  identified  with 
the  teachings  of  Aristotle,  could  be  harmonised  with 
those  of  Judaism. 

This  attempt  is  made  in  his  great  work  The  Guide  of  the 
Perplexed  (written  in  Arabic  about  11 90,  and  subsequently 
translated  into  Hebrew  more  than  once).  The  book  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  first  of  which  deals  with  the  apparent  contra- 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  265 

dictions  between  Aristotle  and  the  Bible,  Maimonides  attempt- 
ing to  show  that  this  is  due  only  to  a  literal  interpretation  of 
the  latter.  When  the  anthropomorphic  language  is  properly 
explained,  these,  he  contends,  disappear.  In  this  connexion  he 
discusses  the  divine  attributes.  "  Maimonides  does  not  admit 
any  positive  attributes  in  the  description  of  God,  except  those 
referring  to  God's  actions.  God's  essence  can  be  described 
only  negatively."^  The  first  part  concludes  with  a  history  of  the 
Kalam^  and  a  criticism  of  its  methods  and  teachings.  This 
is  a  valuable  source — till  recent  times  the  main  source— of 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

In  the  second  part  the  principal  problems  of  philosophy — 
creatio  ex  nihilo^  the  unity  and  incorporeality  of  God — and 
the  nature  of  prophecy  are  discussed  ;  while  the  third  part  is 
devoted  to  questions  of  a  more  theological  nature,  such  as  the 
origin  of  evil,  the  extent  of  divine  providence,  and  the  meaning 
and  purpose  of  the  divine  law.  "  Maimonides  identifies 
religion,  as  expressed  in  the  divine  precepts  of  the  Pentateuch, 
with  ethics  and  tries  to  show  that  the  precepts,  if  properly 
understood,  have  a  moral  purpose."  ^ 

Maimonides'  works  were  widely  studied  in  Christian  circles, 
and  exercised  great  influence  on  the  scholastic  writers,  es- 
pecially Albertus  Magnus  and  Aquinas. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Guide  is  that  of  Dr.  M.  Friedlander, 
in  3  vols.  (London,  1881-85).  A  useful  conspectus  is  given 
in  the  volume  on  Maimonides  by  David  Yellin  and  Israel 
Abrahams  (London,   Macmillan,   1903). 

Maimonides'  disciple  and  "  spiritual  son,"  Joseph 
ben  Judah  ibn  Aknin  (i  160-1226),  wrote  on  philo- 
sophical problems,  but  the  controversy  which  arose 
after  Maimonides'  death  led  to  a  decline  of  philo- 
sophic studies  in  Jewish  circles  during  the  thirteenth 
century.3 

Ibn  Aknin  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  which  discussed 
{a)  the  nature  of  the  Al)solute,  {b)  the  derivation  of  all  things 
from  the  Absolute,  and  (t)  creatio  ex  iiiliilo.  This  was  written 
in  Arabic,  but  has  survived  only  in  a  Hebrew  translation. 

Jewish  writers  who  dealt  with  philosophic  problems  were  not 
wanting  in  the  thirteenth  century  ;  but  for  the  most  part  their 

^  Maker  in  Hastings's  Dictio7iary  of  Religion  and  EtJiics^ 
\'ol.  rx.,  p.  876.  2  Salter,  op.  cit.  ibid. 

•'  cp.  Ciraetz,  Hisiory  of  the  Jews  (E.T.),  iii.  522-545  and  623  ff, 


266  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

work  is  destitute  of  originality,  merely  repeating  what  had  been 
said  already,  taking  the  form  of  commentaries  or  compendiums. 
Translations  of  foreign  works  into  Hebrew  were  also  made. 
In  this  connexion  the  following  may  be  mentioned  :  Shem  Tob 
Palquera  (1225-90);  the  Italian  physician  Hillel  ben  Samuel 
(1220-90),  the  translator  into  Hebrew  of  several  works,  among 
others  of  the  Liber  de  causis  (from  the  Latin  text)  ;  Isaac 
Alhalag,  of  South  France  (second  half  of  thirteenth  century), 
who  tried  to  harmonise  the  Biblical  account  of  Creation  with 
the  Aristotelian  tenet  of  the  eternity  of  matter  ;  and  Joseph 
ibn  Caspi  of  Argentiere  (1297--1340),  who  was  a  prolific  writer. 

With  the  dawn  of  the  fourteenth  century  Jewish 
peripatetic  philosophy  was  revived  and  given  its 
most  pronounced  form  by  the  famous  Levi  ben 
Gershon  (RaLBaG),  commonly  called  "  Gersonides," 
who  is  also  known  as  "  Leon  de  Bagnols,"  and,  in 
Latin,  as  "  Magister  Leo  Hebraeus"  (1288-1344). 
Gershon,  who  was  exegete,  mathematician,  and 
physician,  as  well  as  philosopher,  began  to  write 
the  philosophical  work  which  brought  him  so  much 
renown — the  Milchanwth  'Adonai  ("The  Battles  of 
the  Lord ") — when  he  was  not  yet  thirty  years  of 
age.  He  wrote  numerous  philosophic  commentaries 
on  the  Bible,  on  the  works  of  Averroes,  and  on  parts 
of  the  Talmud,  as  well  as  treatises  on  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  medicine. 

The  following  important  works  of  Gershon  were  finished  b)- 
1 32 1  (when  he  was  thirty-three):  The  Mikhamoth  ^ A donat 
(begun  1 3 [7),  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  on  the  earlier 
Prophets,  on  Daniel,  on  Proverbs,  on  Canticles,  Esther, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Ruth,  a  treatise  on  syllogisms  {Sepher 
Hekkesh  ha-  Yashar)^  and  a  commentary  on  the  Middle 
Commentaries  and  resiwics  of  Averroes  (part  of  this  commen- 
tary was  translated  into  Latin  by  Jacob  Mantino  and  published 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  with  the  commen- 
taries of  Averroes). 

Levi  ben  Gershon  occupies  a  unique  position  in 
the  history  of  Jewish  philosophy.  "  Of  all  the 
Jewi.sh  peripatetics  he  alone  dared  to  vindicate  the 
Aristotelian  position    in    its    integrit}',   regardless   of 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  267 

the  conflict  existing  between  some  of  its  doctrines 
and  the  principal  dogmas  of  Judaism.  Possessed  of 
a  highly  developed  critical  sense,  Levi  sometimes 
disagrees  with  Aristotle  and  asserts  his  own  views  in 
opposition  to  those  of  his  master  Averroes ;  but 
when,  after  having  weighed  the  pros  and  cons  of  a 
doctrine,  he  believes  it  to  be  sound,  he  is  not  afraid 
to  profess  it,  even  when  it  is  directly  at  variance  with 
an  accepted  dogma  of  Jewish  theology.  '  The  Law,' 
he  says,  *  cannot  prevent  us  from  considering  to  be 
true  that  which  our  reason  urges  us  to  believe.' "  ^ 

In  his  treatment  of  philosophical  questions  Gershon 
adopts  the  method  of  Aristotle.  Before  giving  his 
own  solutions,  he  subjects  the  opinions  of  his  pre- 
decessors to  a  critical  review.  In  his  Milchamoth 
'Adonai  he  discusses  the  nature  of  the  soul,  its 
relation  to  the  intellect,  the  question  "  Is  prophecy 
possible?"  the  nature  of  prophecy,  God's  omni- 
science, Divine  Providence,  astronomy,  physics,  and 
metaphysics,  Creation  and  miracles.  Some  of  his 
philosophical  theories  influenced  Spinoza. 

Another  interesting '  name  in  this  connexion  is 
that  of  Moses  ben  Joshua  of  Narbonne  (sometimes 
called  Moses  Narboni),  surnamed  "  Maestro  Vidal 
BJasom "  (born  at  end  of  thirteenth  century,  died 
after  1362).  He  studied  and  practised  medicine  with 
great  success,  and  was  well  versed  in  Biblical  and 
Rabbinical  literature ;  but  his  main  activities  were 
devoted  to  philosophy,  and  especially  to  the  w^orks  of 
Averroes,  of  whom  he  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer. 
He  wrote  (in  Hebrew)  valuable  commentaries  on  the 
latter's  works,  as  well  as  on  those  of  Avicenna, 
Ghazali,  Ibn  Tufail,  and  Maimonides. 

The  reaction  against  the  extreme  philosophical 
positions  of  Gersonides  and  Maimonides  was  marked 
by  the  appearance  of  a  profound  philosophical  work 

^  Broyde  in  JE  viii.  29.  (See  the  whole  article  for  a  full 
discussion  of  Gershon's  philosophy,) 


268  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

by  Chasdai  ben  Abraham  Crescas  of  Barcelona  (1340- 
1410).  The  title  of  this  is  'Or  'Adonai  ("  Light  of  the 
Lord  ").  Crescas  intended  this  to  be  the  first  part  of 
a  larger  work.  The  second  part,  which  was  neve 
written,  was  to  be  called  Ner  'Adonai  (''  Lamp  of  the 
Lord  "),  the  whole  to  be  a  complete  presentment  of 
the  contents  of  Judaism. 

The  'Or  ^Adonai  is  a  philosophical  treatment  of  Jewish 
dogma.  Its  avowed  object  "was  to  liberate  Judaism  from 
the  bondage  of  Aristotelianism,  which,  through  Maimonides, 
influenced  by  Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna),  and  Gersonides,  influenced 
by  Ibn  Roshd  (Averroes),  threatened  to  blur  the  distinctness 
of  the  Jewish  faith,  reducing  the  doctrinal  contents  of  Judaism 
to  a  surrogate  of  Aristotelian  concepts."-^ 

Tlie  work  is  divided  into  four  parts,  which  deal  respectively 
with  (i)  the  existence  of  God  ;  (2)  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
the  faith  ;  (3)  other  doctrines  which,  without  being  funda- 
mental, are  binding  on  the  adherents  of  Judaism  ;  (4)  traditional 
doctrines  which  are  not  binding,  and  which  are  open  to 
philosophical  construction, 

Crescas  is  important  because  he  met  the  philosophical  attack 
on  religion  with  philosophical  weapons. 

It  was  through  Albo  that  his  ideas  more  directly  influenced 
Jewish  thought. 

Mention  can  only  be  made  in  passing  of  a  philo- 
sopher (^  distinction  who  arose  among  the  Karaite 
Jews  durmg  the  fourteenth  century.  This  was  Aaron 
ben  Elijah  of  Nicomedia  (Asia  Minor),  who  produced 
a  treatise  (finished  in  1346)  which  w^as  modelled  on 
Maimonides'  Guide,  called  The  Tree  of  Life.  This  is 
a  work  of  some  importance. 

Another  philosophic  writer  of  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century  is  Profiat  Duran  (called  "  Maestre 
Profiat"),  whose  real  name  was  Isaac  ben  Moses 
ha-Levi,  the  author  of  a  synoptic  commentary 
on  Maimonides'  Guide,  which  shows  considerable 
acquaintance  with  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.- 

^  JE  {s.7'.  "  Crescas"),  iv.  351. 

^  He  also  wrote  a  critical  Hebrew  grammar,  which  was  much 
praised  by  both  Jews  and   Christians,  and   a  polemical  work 


PHILOSOPHY   AND   ETHICS  269 

More  noteworthy  is  Simon  ben  Zemach  Duran 
(RaShBaZ)  (i 361-1444),  a  man  of  vast  learnin^j  and 
a  prolific  author  of  writini^s  on  TahTiuclic,  Biblical, 
religious,  liturgical,  and  philosophic  subjects.  He 
wrote  a  vast  treatise  of  an  encyclopaedic  character 
entitled  Magen  Aboth,  in  which  he  displays  his 
familiarity  with  philosophy  and  with  the  whole  range 
of  the  secular  learning  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He 
attacked  Chasdai  Crescas  and  defended  Maimonides. 

The  best-known  Jewish  philosophic  w^riter  of  the 
fifteenth  century  is  Joseph  Albo  (about  1 380-1444), 
a  pupil  of  Chasdai  Crescas,  and  author  of  the  famous 
work  'Ikkarim  ("  Principles  "). 

Albo's  ^Ikkariin  ("  Book  of  Principles ")  became  a  popular 
text-book.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  primarily  a" 
contribution  to  the  apologetics  of  Judaism.  Like  his  master 
Crescas,  he  criticises  Maimonides  and  the  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophy. He  reduces  the  fundamental  "roots"  or  root-doctrines 
of  Judaism  to  three,  and  attaches  to  each  of  these  a  number  of 
^Shirashim^  or  "  secondary  radicals."  The  three  fundamental 
root-principles  are:  (i)  Belief  in  the  existence  of  (jod  ; 
(2)  belief  in  revelation,  or  communication  of  divine  instruction 
by  God  to  man  ;  (3)  belief  in  divine  retribution  (future  rewards 
and  punishments). 

After  Albo  there  flourished  several  Jewish  philo- 
sophic writers  of  merit,  but  none  of  marked  originality, 
during  the  rest  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  best-known  names  are  those  of  Abraham  Bihago  of 
Huesca  (died  about  1490),  who  commented  on  Averroes,  and 
wrote  a  philosophic  defence  of  the  Jewish  faith  {The  Path 
of  Faith)  ;  Judah  Messer  Leon  of  Mantua  ;  Elijah  del  Medigo 
of  Crete  (1450-93),  a  famous  professor  of  philosophy  (at  the 
University  of  Padua  and  elsewhere),  who  wrote  not  only  in 
Hebrew  (the  Bechinath  ha-Dath,  "  Investigation  of  Religion"), 
but  also  in  Latin  (on  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Averroes) ; 
Isaac  Arama  of  Zamora  (died  1494),  the  author  of  a  popular 
philosophic  and  homiletical  work  called  The  Offering  of  Isaac  ; 

(still  unpublished)  criticising  Christian  dogmas.  This  was 
written  in  1397  at  the  request  of  Chasdai  Crescas,  to  whom 
it  was  dedicated.     Its  title  is  Kelimmath  ha-Goyiin. 


270  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDI.?i:VAL  JUDAISM 

and  Isaac  Abarbanel  (1437-1508),  the  author  of  numerous 
Bible  commentaries,  who  has  already  been  referred  to  in  that 
connexion,  also  wrote  on  philosophical  questions. 

With  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  in 
1492  the  great  centre  of  Jewish  science  and  learning 
was  destroyed.  And  with  this  event  the  line  of 
"Jewish  philosophy"  in  the  strict  sense  came  to  an 
end.  Books  dealing  with  philosophical  questions  were 
still  written,  but  no  great  contributions  were  made. 

The  line  of  Jewish  philosophers  played,  perhaps, 
no  great  role  in  the  evolution  of  philosophy,  but  they 
took  an  important  part  in  preserving  and  transmitting 
philosophic  thought  through  a  difficult  period. 

Besides  the  purely  ethical  treatises  already  referred  to,  the 
most  notable  of  which  is  Bachya's  Duties  of  the  Hearty 
mention  ought  to  be  made  of  some  others  that  were  important. 
A.  book  of  this  kind  that  obtained  wide  currency  in  the  Middle 
Ages  is  The  Book  of  the  Pious  {Sepher  ha-Chasiditn),  which  has 
been  attributed  to  Judah  Chasid,  of  whom  very  little  is  known. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Regensburg  at  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  and  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Book  of 
the  Piotis,  however,  seems  really  to  be  the  work  of  no  single 
writer,  but  to  have  grown  up  out  of  various  elements — 
mystical,  ethical,  ceremonial — in  the  Rhinelands  during  the 
thirteenth  century.  Parts  of  it  display  deep  insight  into  the 
cravings  of  the  human  heart. 

The  famous  Eleazar  of  Worms  (i  176-1238),  who  has  already 
been  referred  to  in  other  connexions,  and  who  was  a  pupil  of 
Judah  Chasid,  was  the  author  of  a  well-known  book  of  a  similar 
kind  entitled  Rokeach,  by  which  name  Eleazar  himself  is  also 
sometimes  called. 

An  anonymous  ethical  book  which  emanated  from  the  Rhine 
district,  and  was  probably  written  some  time  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  is  known  as  The  Ways  of  the  Righteous  (^0?'choth 
Zaddikin)}  It  has  often  been  printed  (both  in  Jewish-German 
and  Hebrew). 

Another  favourite  class  of  ethical  works  consisted  of  com- 
pilations of  an  ethical  character  from  the  Talmud  and  Midrash. 
The  oldest  and  most  highly  esteemed  of  these  was  written  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  Isaac  Aboab,  and 

^  Also  called  sometimes  Sepher  ha-Middoth. 


THE   MEDIEVAL   POETRY  271 

bears  the  title  Lamp  of  Light  {Menorath  ha-Maor).  The 
author  lived  in  Spain. 

Another  popular  compilation  of  the  same  kind  is  Jacob  ibn 
Chabib's  ''Eti  Ya''akob^  which  was  made  in  the  sixteenth  century 
{cp.  p.  138  above). 

Elijah  de  Vidas'  Reshith  Chokmah  {Beginning  of  IVisdotn), 
first  published  in  1578,  was  also  widely  read.  It  collects 
maxims  on  such  topics  as  the  love  and  fear  of  God,  repentance, 
holiness,  and  humility. 

A  peculiarly  Jewish  department  of  this  kind  of  literature  is 
the  ethical  will,  many  examples  of  which  are  extant.  In  these 
documents  ^  a  father  (or  a  teacher)  leaves  a  kind  of  ethical 
testament  to  sons  (or  disciples).  They  were  private  documents, 
not  intended  for  publication,  which  were  carefully  treasured 
within  the  family  circle,  and  were  often  written  from  the  thir- 
teenth century  onwards. 

A  well-known  example  of  this  kind,  which  is  really  a  small 
ethical  treatise,  and  has  found  its  way  into  many  prayer  books 
under  the  title  Ways  of  Life^  is  the  ethical  will  of  R.  Asher  ben 
Jechiel  (i 250-1327)  to  his  son  R.  Jehudah  ben  Asher. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  this  type  of  literature 
is  the  ethical  will  of  the  translator  Judah  ibn  Tibbon,  in  which 
he  gives  his  son  excellent  advice  on  methods  of  study  and 
translation. 2 

V 

THE   MEDI/EVAL   POETRY 

[Literature  :  Professor  A.  Sulzbach,  Die  poetische  IJiter- 
atur  (in  Winter  und  Wiinsche,  iii.  1-2 15)  ;  the  articles  "  Poetry 
(Lyric),"  '^  Piyyut,'^  \ri  fE  ;  the  articles  on  the  personal  names 
in  fE  ;  the  articles  "  Literature  (Jewish),"  §  5,  and  "  Hymns 
(Hebrew  and  Jewish)"  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  Religion 
and  Ethics  ;  Zunz,  Die  synagogale  Poesie  des  Mittelalters 
(Berlin,  1855),  and  Die  Litteratur-geschichte  der  sy?tagogalen 
Poesie  (Berlin,  1865);  Franz  Deli'tzsch,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
jiidischen  Poesie  (Leipzig,  1836)  ;  M.  Sachs,  Die  religiose  Poesie 
der  fuden  in  Spa7iien  ;  Thomas  Chenery,  Machberoth  Ithiel 
(London  and  Edinburgh,  1872)  ;  Brody  and  Albrecht  (E.T.), 
The  New- Hebrew  School  of  Poets  of  the  Spanish- Arabian 
Epoch  (London,  1906  ;  Hebrew  text,  with  introduction,  notes, 
and  dictionary). 

EngHsh  translations  (in  poetical  form)  by  Mrs.  Lucas  {The 
Jewish  Year),  Nina  Salamans,  and  others;  chaps,  vii.,  x.,  xii.  in 
Abrahams'  Short  History  of  fewish  Literature^ 

^  Heb.  nw?.  ^  See/£"vi.  545. 


272  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

(i) 
The  development  of  post-Biblical' Hebrew  poetry 
derived  its  first  impulse  from  the  necessities  of 
liturgical  worship.  The  technical  term  for  this  kind 
of  composition  is  piyyut,  and  the  author  of  a  piyyut 
is  called  a  pay  yet  an. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  term  for  "poet," 
7rnir)Tr}s.  In  the  Midrash  piyyut  is  used  in  the  general  sense 
of  "  fiction,"  while  payyetan  has  the  technical  sense  of  an 
author  of  synagogue  poetry.  This  fact  suggests  that  the  latter 
term  is  a  secondary  term  for  the  former. 

The  oldest  piyyiitim,  in  the  technical  sense  of  the 
term,  which  are  anonymous,  probably  date  from  the 
Geonic  period  (seventh  century).  The  most  famous 
payyetan  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  Eleazar  ben  Kalir, 
whose  exact  date  is  uncertain,  but  may  be  some  time 
in  the  tenth  century.^  The  oldest  payyetan  whose 
name  is  known  and  whose  work  must  have  been 
known  to  Saadya  (died  A.D.  942),  since  the  latter 
quotes  him,  is  Jose  ben  Jose. 

Another,  somewhat  later,  is  Jannai,  who  is  reputed 
to  have  been  the  teacher  of  Eleazar  ben  Kalir,  while 
the  latter  was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Saadya. 
From  this  time  the  payyetanim  are  numerous,  and 
were  flourishing  in  the  Jewish  settlements,  especially 
in  Germany,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy. 

The  piyyut  is,  of  course,  not  a  fixed  part  of  the  Jewish 
Liturgy,  but  represents  the  "occasional  "  element  which  is  used 
on  the  great  festivals  and  certain  special  days.  In  consequence 
the  collections  of  piyyutini  differ  in  the  different  rituals.  Those 
used  by  the  Spanish  Jews,  for  instance,  are,  as  a  whole,  different 
from  those  used  by  the  Germans.  They  are  wTitten  in  Hebrew 
— Hebrew  often  used  in  a  strained  and  artificial  way,  especially 
by  Kalir,  but  still  Hebrew  ;  for  though  Arabic  replaced  Hebrew 
as  the  literary  language  of  the  Jews  of  the  Orient,  and  was 
also  used  by  the  Jews  in  Spain,  the  Liturgy  was  always  recited 
in  Hebrew. 

1  Others  would  place  him  about  750. 


THE  MEDIEVAL   POETRY  273 

In  Spain,  where  tlie  new  Hebrew  poetry  attained 
its  zenith  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  the 
outstanding  names  are  Solomon  ibn  Gebirol,  Judah 
ha-Levi,  and  Moses  and  Abraham  ibn  Ezra." 

T\\Q  piyyutiin  fall  into  different  classes,  varying  in 
structure  and  according  to  their  theme  and  place  in 
the  Liturgy.  One  large  class,  which  is  perhaps  the 
oldest,  is  the  Seltchoth,  or  penitential  prayers. 

In  its  simplest  and  oldest  form  the  Selichah  is  represented  by 
such  pieces  as  tlie  we-hic  rachuni  (Singer,  pp.  57-62),  which  in 
its  opening  clauses  runs  as  follows  : 

A?ui  He^  being  merciful^  foj'givcth  ijiiquity  and  deslroyeth  ?iot; 
Yea,  7nany  a  time  He  tiirneth  His  anger  aivay,  and  doth  ?iot 

stir  tip  all  His  wrath. 
Withhold  not  Thou  Thy  tender  me?ries  from  11  s^  O  Lord: 
Let  Thy  loving-kindness  and  truth  co?itinually  preserve  us. 

This  is  recited  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  and  was  known 
as  early  as  the  Geonic  period.  It  was  originally  intended  for 
fast-days,  as  were  some  of  the  other  anonymous  Selichoth. 

The  oldest  poetic  Selichoth  are  in  the  form  of  litanies, 
arranged  in  short  sentences,  and  sometimes  in  alphabetit 
acrostic.  From  these  litanies  originated  the  rhymeless  Selichoth.^ 
which  were  modelled  on  the  IJiblical  alphabetic  Psalms.  In 
course  of  time  the  construction  was  elaborated  and  rhyme 
introduced  (sometimes  middle  rhymes  as  well),  and  the  verses, 
arranged  in  two-,  three-,  or  four-lined  strophes,  have  a  certain 
well-defined  rhythm. ^  A  favourite  theme  for  these  compositions 
was  the  Akedah.,  or  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  which  naturally  led  on  to 
the  commemoration  of  voluntary  sacrifices  made  for  the  Jewish 
religion  (martyrdom). 

A  good  example  of  the  poetic  Selichah^  with  two-lined 
strophes,  the  two  lines  rhyming,  and  each  strophe  beginning 
with  an  alphabetic  letter  in  order,  is  one  known  as  crn  i<2M  for 

the  morning  service  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  the  author  of 
which  is  unknown,  and  which  .is  probably  not  later  than  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  has  been  rendered  into  English  verse  by 
Mr.  Zangwill,  some  of  whose  lines  may  here  be  quoted  :  ^ 

God  and  the  God  of  our  fathers.,  hofioured  and  terrible  Name, 
Pardon  the  sin  of  this  people,  gathered  Thy  praise  to  proclaim. 

^  Seo/E  s.v.  ^^  Selihah,"  xi.  i7ofF.  for  further  details. 
^  See  Service  of  the   Synagogue   {Machzor),    ed.    Davis,    ii. 
p.  84f 

T 


274  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDI.5^.VAL  JUDAISM 

Tender  Thifte  ear  for  Thy  glory  :  hark  to  our  prayer  and  plea. 
Song  of  Thy  suppliant  servants,  yearning  to  reach  unto  Thee. 

Nigh  to  Thy  Temple  this  morn,  to  render  thanksgiving  I  dreiv, 
Set  on  confessing  my  si?is :  the  sins  that  Thy  people  pursue. 

The  term  piyyiitim  is  applied  more  specifically  to 
the  hymns  for  holy-days  and  special  Sabbaths,  which 
are  divided  into  distinct  classes,  according  to  their 
place  in  the  Liturgy. 

Those  which  are  inserted  in  the  Evening  Prayer  {'Arbith)  are 
termed  Ma'-arbiyyoth  ;  a  large  class,  which  are  inserted  in  the 
first  Benediction  of  Morning  Prayer  (  Votzcr  ''6r)^  are  called 
Yotzer,  and  another,  inserted  in  the  second  Benediction  (known 
as  ^Ahabah)^^  are  called  ^Ahabah  ;  those  inserted  in  the 
Benediction  following  the  Shema^  are  termed  Zulath,  from  a 
characteristic  word  which  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  second 
paragraph  of  that  Benediction  ("  There  is  no  God  beside  Thee 
[zTddthekayy 

Other  special  names  are  Ophan,  applied  to  the  piyyut  which 
is  inserted  at  that  part  of  the  morning  Benediction  which  refers 
to  the  "Ophannim  (wheels)  and  holy  chayyoth"  giving  praise 
(Singer,  p.  39)  ;  the  idea  of  the  passage  is  based  upon  Ezekiel's 
vision  (chap,  i.),  and  the  theme  of  the  inserted  piyyut  is  that  of 
the  heavenly  host  praising  the  Lord  ;  and  also  Keroboth, 
Shib''ata  ("seven,"  because  the  ''Amidah  Prayer  for  Sabbaths 
and  holy  days  consists  of  seven  Benedictions),  Tokachah 
("reproof"),  a  kind  of  penitential  discourse,  and  Kinah 
("  lamentation  "),  used  on  the  Fast  of  the  Qth  of  Ab. 

The  term  Kerohoth  ("  prayers  of  approach,"  i.e.  to 
God  ;  cp.  Jer.  xii.  2)  in  particular  is  applied  to  the 
piyyutim  which  are  inserted  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
repetition  of  the  morning  ^Amidah  on  special  Sab- 
baths, on  the  three  festivals,  and  on  New  Year  in  the 
Ashkenazic  Liturgy.  They  are  associated  with  very 
ancient  melodies. 

.^  See  Singer,  p.  37  f.  ("Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  .  .  .  who 
Greatest  light"). 

2  'Ahabah  —  "  Love"  ;  cp.  Singer,  p.  39  f.  ("  With  abounding 
love^^  etc.). 

^  cp.  Singer,  p.  43.  Sometimes  Geullah  ("Redemption") 
is  used. 


THE  MEDIAEVAL  POETRY  275 

They  are  constructed  in  accordance  with  a  fixed  scheme, 
always  opening  with  a  rcshuth^  or  prayer  of  the  cantor  for 
divine  guidance,  accompanied  by  a  confession  of  unworthiness. 
The  reshuth  is  cantillated  to  a  melody  which  reappears  in  the 
concluding  verses.  The  main  body  of  the  piyyut  is  now 
generally  read  through  in  an  undertone.  The  whole  is  brought 
to  an  end  in  a  long  meditation  bringing  in  the  Kedushah^ 
which  is  termed  the  Silluk  {i.e.   ''cessation,"  sc.  of  the  singing). 

The  following  example  illustrates  the  opening  of 
such  a  piyyut  for  the  morning  service  of  the  First 
Day  of  the  New  Year.^  The  o[)ening  clause  rhymes 
in  the  Hebrew^  as  well  as  the  lines  that  follow.^ 

From  the  counsel  of  the  wise  and  understandings 
and  from  knowledge  gotten  of  the  discerning,  I  will 
open  my  lips  in  prayer  and  supplication,  to  intreat 
and  implore  the  presence  of  the  King  of  kings  and 
Lord  of  lords. 

Trembling,  I  now  pour  forth  my  prayerful  plea, 
And,  suppliant,  seek  Thee  shrined  in  awe  supreme. 
I  fear  that  worthless  Thou  my  deeds  must  deem ; 

Wisdom  I  lack,  and  hope  forsaketh  me. 

Teach  me  my  sacred  portion  to  possess ; 

Strengthen,  uphold  me,  weak  in  terror  s  snare. 

Account  my  whispered  plaint  as  incense  rare. 
Sweeter  than  honey  voice  of  my  distress. 

Its  guileless  utterance  through  Thy  grace  confirm, 
And  pardon's  ransom  to  my  people  speed. 
Melodious  let  my  supplication  plead 

For  these  Thy  suitors,  humbled  as  the  worm. 

Thy  promise,  from  the  sheltering  covert  heard, 
Renew,  and  hearken  to  the  prayer  I  frame. 
When   Thou   dost   search  my   heart,   mine   inward 
flame ; 

With  dread  of  doom  my  stricken  soul  is  stirred. 

^  See  Set  vice  of  the  Synagogue,  New  Year,  p.  95  f. 
-  The  author  is  R.  Jekuthiel  b.  Moses  of  Speyer  (circa  1070). 
The  rhymed  version  is  by  Elsie  Davis. 

T    2 


276  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Lest  sin  he  paid  full  due,  each  heart  doth  quake; 

As  streams,  the  fountains  of  mine  eyelids  flow. 

Craving  Thy  charity,  I  wait ;  bestow 
Thy  pardon,  for  the  righteous  fathers  sake. 

My  heart  grows  hot  the  while  I  muse  and  pray, 
'Tis  kindled  as  a  fiery,  glowing  coal  ; 
Doubts,  like  a  tempest,  agitate  my  soul ; 

For  terror  hath  invaded  us  this  day. 

All  this  is  cantillated  by  the  Reader.  Then  follows 
a  longer  passage  recited  by  the  congregation.  The 
compositions  called  Kinoth  are  designed  for  use  on 
the  9th  of  Ab,  the  solemn  fast  which  commemorates 
the  various  destructions  of  the  Holy  City.  Various 
elegiac  poems  of  this  type  were  produced  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  most  famous  being  the  Sionim  of 
Judah  ha-Levi.  To  another  Spanish-Jewish  poet  of 
the  twelfth  century,  Baruch  (1077-1127),  son  of  R. 
Isaac  ibn  Albalia,  two  Kinoth  are  attributed  which 
are  still  used  in  the  synagogue.  One  of  these  has 
been  rendered  into  English  in  poetical  form  by  the 
late  Canon  T.  L.  Kingsbury,  from  which  the  following 
'  stanzas  may  be  quoted.  The  elegy  consists  of  twenty- 
two  short  stanzas,  following  the  alphabetic  order  (and 
thus  forming  an  alphabetic  acrostic) ;  each  stanza 
again  is  subdivided  by  a  double  refrain,  When  I  forth 
from  Egypt  came,  and  When  I  left  ferusalem.  The 
poet  "  contrasts  the  mercies  and  glories  of  the 
Exodus  with  the  awful  judgements  which  accom- 
panied and  followed  the  two  falls  of  Jerusalem,"  ^  but 
ends  on  a  triumphant  note.  An  introductory  stanza, 
which  stands  outside  the  alphabetic  scheme,  describes 
the  emotions  which  moved  the  poet  to  write.  We 
quote  this  and  two  others  of  the  twenty-two  : 

^  See     77ie    Holy    Tears   of  Jesus   (London,    H odder    and 
Stoughton,  1892),  Appendix  ill. 


THE   MEDIEVAL   POETRY  277 

Introductory  Stanza 

Fire  is  kindled  me  within, 

Bright  thoughts  in  my  heart  upspring, 

How  I  forth  from  Egypt  came. 
Lays  of  mourning  I  intone, 
Memory  utters  groan  on  groan, 

How  I  left  feriisalem. 

Aleph 

Moses  sang  that  glorious  day 
Song  that  ne'er  shall  pass  away, 

When  I  forth  from  Egypt  came. 
Jeremiah  pour'd  his  soul 
Forth  in  lamentable  dole, 

When  I  left  Jerusalem. 

Daleth 

Angel-bread  from  highest  heaven, 
Rock-stored  water-streams  were  given, 

When  I  forth  from  Egypt  came. 
Wormwood,  gall  have  been  my  food, 
And  my  drink  of  tears  the  flood. 

Since  I  left  Jerusalem. 

Another  elaborate  kind  of  liturgical  composition 
for  the  Day  of  Atonement  services  is  termed  'Ahodah 
("  Service  "),  its  theme  being  a  detailed  description  of 
the  service  in  the  Temple  on  that  day,  based  upon 
the  Mishnah  tractate  Yoma. 

Other  liturgical  compositions  of  a  similar  general  character 
are  ^Azharotli  (embodying  the  Pentateuchal  commandments), 
and  HosIia''anot]i.,  poetical  pieces  with  a  "  Hosanna  '^  refrain, 
used  on  Hosha''Jia  fabba  (the  seventh  day  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles).  The  cycle  of  festival  services  is  termed  Machzoi- 
r  cycle"). 


278  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

(ii) 

Kalir  is,  in  many  respects,  the  most  remarkable  of 
\h^  payyetaniin.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  no  less 
than  two  hundred  of  his  compositions  being  still 
extant  in  various  Machzorim.  He  is  the  most 
essentially  Jewish  of  the  liturgical  poets,  drawing 
his  materials  from  the  Talmudim  and  Midrashim, 
and  using  as  his  medium  of  expression  Biblical 
Hebrew — but  a  Biblical  Hebrew  "enriched  with 
daring  innovations."  He  takes  great  liberties  with 
the  language,  uses  rare  words,  and  constantly  makes 
allusions  to  the  Haggadah  and  indulges  in  allegorical 
expressions  to  an  extent  that  makes  him  difficult  to 
follow.  In  spite  of  these  defects,  which  have  pro- 
voked much  criticism,  Kalir  has  always  had  imitators, 
and  the  "  Kalirian  "  form  of  piyyut  has  been  per- 
petuated down  to  recent  times.  Kalir  employed  the 
acrostic  (and  also  gematria)  in  order  to  interweave 
his  own  name  into  his  compositions,  and  uses  rhyme. 

Saadya  also  added  hymns  to  the  Liturgy.  Some 
of  these  have  all  the  faults  of  the  Kalirian  piyyut 
without  its  virtues  ;  but  others  are  characterised  by 
a  purity  and  simplicity  that  suggest  the  Spanish 
school,  of  which,  indeed,  in  some  ways  Saadya  was 
the  harbinger. 

Under  the  princely  physician  and  statesman, 
Chasdai  ibn  Shaprut  (915-970  or  990),  Cordova 
became  the  home  of  Jewish  culture  and  letters. 
There  Jewish  grammarians,  critics,  poets,  merchants, 
and  courtiers  assembled  under  his  auspices,  among 
the  rest  Dunash  ibn  Labrat,  grammarian  and  poet. 
Dunash  was  for  a  time  a  pupil  of  Saadya,  and  it  was 
after  the  death  of  the  latter  (in  942)  that  he  went  to 
Cordova.  His  importance  as  a  poet  is  considerable, 
as  he  was  the  first  to  apply  Arabic  metrical  rules  to 
Hebrew  poetry,  though  very  few  of  his  verses  have 
survived. 


THE   MEDIEVAL   POETRY  279 

About  half  a  century  after  the  death  of  Chasdai, 
Samuel  ibn  Nagdela  (993-1055)  was  head  of  the 
Jewish  community  in  Granada,  and  occupied  a 
position  of  commanding  influence.  As  head  of  the 
Jewish  community  he  is  termed  "the  Nagid " 
("Prince").  He  became  the  principal  minister  of 
the  ruler  of  Granada.  A  man  of  extraordinary 
versatility,  Samuel  was  at  once  Rabbi  (and  a  pro- 
found Rabbinical  scholar  ^),  statesman  and  man  of 
affairs,  and  poet.  He  wrote  many  poetical  pieces — 
hymns  in  the  style  of  the  Psalms  {Ben  Tehillim)  and 
of  Proverbs  {Ben  Mishle),  as  well  as  secular  pieces 
such  as  wine-  and  love-songs.  "  When  Samuel  the 
Nagid  died  in  1055,  the  golden  age  of  (Jewish) 
Spanish  literature  was  in  sight."' 

"In  the  days  of  Chasdai,"  says  Abraham  ibn  Daud, 
"  the  poets  began  to  twitter."  This,  of  course,  refers 
to  the  poets  of  the  new  Spanish-Arabian  school,  who 
may  be  said  to  begin  with  Dunash  ibn  Labrat  and 
his  opponent,  Menachem  ben  Saruk.  In  Spain 
Jewish  poetry,  though  largely  religious,  embraced 
also  secular  subjects,  and  was  pervaded  by  a  totally 
different  spirit  from  that  of  the  Kalirian  piyyiit.  It 
was  purer  in  its  diction,  less  artificial,  and  more 
melodious  and  graceful.  It  was  brought  to  perfec- 
tion by  the  great  masters,  Solomon  ibn  Gebirol,  the 
Ibn  Ezras,  and  Judah  ha-Levi. 

Solomon  ibn  Gebirol  (born  in  Malaga  in  1021, 
died  in  1058  or  1070)  was  a  man  of  genius,  and,  like 
many  other  geniuses,  lived,  on  the  whole,  very 
unhappily.  His  work  as  a  philosopher  has  already 
been  discussed  in  a  previous  section.     As  a  poet  he 

1  He  wrote  a  well-known  Introduction  to  the  Talmud  {Mebo 
ha-Talmiid).  It  is  usually  included  in  the  printed  editions  of 
the  Talmud  at  the  end  of  the  tractate  Berakoth.  Under  the 
title  Clavis  Talmiidica\\.  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Constantin 
L'Empereur  (Leyden,  1633).     . 

-  I.  Abrahams,  op.  cit.  p.  62. 


28o  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

stands  with  the  supreme  masters  of  the  Jewish- 
Spanish  school.  It  was  Gebirol  who  was  the  first  of 
the  Hebrew  poets  to  elaborate  and  apply  the  strict 
Arabic  metrical  principles  introduced  by  Dunash 
ben  Labrat.^  The  poems  are  rhymed,  all  the  lines, 
whether  long  or  short,  ending  with  the  same  syllable. 
They  are  written  in  pure  Biblical  Hebrew,  and  all, 
even  the  secular  poems,  are  permeated  by  strong- 
religious  feeling. 

His  finest  compositions,  however,  are  his  liturgical 
poems.  Zunz  says  that  "  the  liturgic  poetry  of  the 
Spanish- Arabic  Jews  attained  its  perfection  with  Ibn 
Gebirol."  Here  the  limitations  imposed  by  the 
payyetanic  form  and  involved  and  artificial  expres- 
sion are  almost  wholly  overcome.  Perhaps  the  best 
example  of  his  genius  in  this  department  is  the 
Kether  Malkuth,  or  Royal  Crown,  a  philosophical 
and  ethical  poem  in  rhymed  prose,  containing  a 
description  of  the  universe,  sphere  within  sphere,  and 
forming  a  glowing  panegyric  of  the  glory  of  God  as 
manifested  both  in  the  realm  of  the  material  and  the 
spiritual.  Extracts  from  this  poem  are  given  in  an 
English  version,  in  poetical  form,  by  Mrs.  Lucas  in 
JQR  viii.  239  ff.  (1896).  The  following  stanza  may 
be  quoted  : 

Beyond  conception  great 
Thy  power  is,  wherewith  Thou  didst  create 
From  out  Thy  glory's  depths  a  radiant  flame, 
Hewn  from  the  rock  of  rocks  and  wrought 
Out  of  eternity,  with  wisdom  fraught, 
The  soul,  the  living  soul — thus  didst  Thou  call  its  name. 
By  Thee  Omnipotent, 
Formed  of  the  spirit's  fire,  and  sent 
To  guard  and  keep   and  serve    awhile   this    earthly 
frame. 


^  ^  Ibn  EiJia  cites  examples  from  Gebirol's  poems  in  his  Sep/ie 
Zachoth  to  illustrate  his  description  of  the  various  metres. 


THE   MEDIEVAL   POETRY  281 

His  contributions  to  liturgical  poetry  were  very- 
numerous,  and  have  found  a  place  not  only  in  the 
Spanish  Rite,  but  also  in  others  (Rumanian,  German, 
and  even  Karaitic).  These  consist  of  piyyutiDi  and 
selichoth  (more  than  100)  for  the  Sabbaths,  festivals, 
and  fast-days, 

A  beautiful  rendering  of  the  poetic  hymn  used  in  the  Abodah 
of  the  Atonement  Day  services  is  given  by  Mrs.  Lucas  in  her 
Jewish  Year  (p.  67  f ).     The  opening  stanza  runs  as  follows  : 

Happy  he  who  saiu  of  old 

The  high-priest^  with  ge?ns  of  gold 

A II  adorned  from  crotvfi  to  hem^ 

Tread  thy  courts  Jerusalem^ 

Till  he  reached  the  sacred  place 

Where  the  Lo7-d^s  especial  grace 

Ever  dwelt,  the  cejitre  of  the  whole  : 
Happy  he  whose  eyes 
Saw  at  last  the  cloud  of  glory  rise^ 

But  to  hear  of  it  afflicts  our  soul. 

C.eljirol  also  wrote  a  rhymed  enumeration  of  the  613  precepts 
of  the  Law  {Azharoth),  and  a  poem  of  400  lines  called  ^Anak. 
A  selection  of  his  poems  (Hebrew  text  and  English  translations) 
is  published  in  'Treasures  of  0.\fo?'d,  by  Edelman  and  Dukes 
(London,  1851),  and  there  is  a  selection  (of  Hebrew  texts  only) 
in  Albrecht  and  Brody's  lyie  New  Hebrew  School  of  Poets. 

Another  master  of  the  Spanish-Jewish  school  of 
poets  was  Moses  ibn  Ezra,i  who  was  also  distin- 
guished as  a  philosopher.  He  was  born  at  Granada 
about  1070,  and  died  after  11 38.  As  a  poet  he 
appealed  especially  to  scholars  and  those  who  w^ere 
able  to  appreciate  his  command  over  the  technical 
devices  of  the  art.  His  poetical  compositions  were 
preferred  by  Al-Charizi  even  to  those  of  Judah 
ha-Levi.  Nevertheless,  his  liturgical  poems,  which 
number  some  220  pieces,  have,  many  of  them,  found 
a  place  in  most  of  the  Machzorim  (with  the  excep- 
tion   of    the    Ashkenazic).     He    writes    in     Biblical 

V  Moses  ben  Jacob  ha-Salluch  (Arabic  name  Abu  Harun 
Musd). 


282  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Hebrew  (with  a  certain  admixture  of  rare  forms  and 
usages),  and  some  of  his  piyyiitim  are  of  remarkable 
beauty. 

His  secular  poems  are  contained  in  two  works  : 

{a)  The  Tarshish  (^j'^hn  ="  topaz "),  so  called  because  it 
contains  1,216  lines  (•o:';r"in  ==  by  .^(^'w^^/r/Vz  1,216),  is  divided  into 
ten  chapters,  each  of  which  contains  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  order.  It  is  written  in  the  manner  of  the  Arabic  "  tajnis,"  or 
"punning"  rhyme,  which  consists  of  the  repetition  of  words  in 
every  stanza,  but  employed  in  a  different  sense  at  each 
repetition.  The  ten  chapters  consist  of  (i)  a  dedication  to  a 
certain  Abraham,  while  the  rest  have  for  their  themes  (2)  wine, 
love,  and  song  ;  (3)  the  charm  of  country  life  ;  (4)  and  (5)  love- 
sickness  and  the  separation  of  lovers  ;  (6)  unfaithful  friends  ; 
(7)  old  age  ;  (8)  vicissitudes  of  fortune  and  death  ;  (9)  con- 
fidence in  God  ;  (10)  the  glory  of  poetry.  An  edition  of  the 
Hebrew  text  was  published  by  Uavid  GiJnzberg  in  1886  (Berlin, 
Society  of  the  d'oti:  'iJ'p'^)-  Two  illuminating  articles  by  K. 
Albrecht  on  the  language  of  the  poem  appeared  in  vol.  xix.  of 
the  Zeitschrift f.  d.  Alttest.  Wissenschaft^  1899  (pp.  I34~i55  and 
310-328),  entitled  Ziim  Lexicon  utid  zur  Gra/nmatik  d.  Neu- 
hebraischen  (with  special  reference  to  the  Tarshish). 

{b)  The  Divan.,  still  extant  in  MS.  This  contains  some  300 
secular  poems,  having  for  their  theme  the  praise  of  friends,  and 
elegies  on  the  death  of  scholars. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  rendering  of  one  of  Ibn 
Ezra's  liturgical  pieces  {The  Jewish  Year,  p.  ii2f.).  It  is 
entitled 

PENITENTIAL   PRAYER 

Forthjiies  my  soul  upborne  by  hope  untiring., 
The  land  of  rest.,  the  spring  of  life  desiring., 
Unto  the  heavenly  dwellijig-place  aspiring., 
To  seek  its  peace  by  day  and  night. 

My  spirit  does  God^s  majesty  adore., 
And  without  win^s  shall  to  His presejice  soar., 
There  to  behold  His  glory  evermore^ 
At  daiuft,  at  noonday.,  a?td  at  night. 

Another  Ibn  Ezra,  the  famous  scholar,  philosopher, 
and  exegete,  Abraham  (born  at  Toledo  before  11 00, 
died,  perhaps,  1167),  was  also  a  poet.  Yet  poetry 
was  not  his  principal  preoccupation,  and  admirable 
and  lofty  as  the  .sentiments  expressed  in  his  poems 


THE   MEDIiEVAL   POETRY  283 

are,  and  excellent  as  they  are  in  form,  they  lack  the 
imaginative  element. 

He  wrote  a  Divaii  (260  numbers)  which  has  been  edited 
from  a  unique  MS.  by  L  Egers.  This  work  also  contains  a 
religio-philosophical  poem  in  rhymed  prose,  based  upon  an 
Arabic  prose-work  of  Avicenna.  To  the  Liturgy  he  has  con- 
tributed several  hymns,  which  breathe  a  spirit  of  resignation. 
Several  specimeils  are  given  in  English  verse  in  Mrs.  Lucas's 
Jewish   Year. 

The  greatest  of  the  Jewish  mediaeval  poets,  in 
whom  the  distinctive  Jewish  feeling  most  perfectly 
expressed  itself,  was  Judah  ha-Levi  (born  at  Toledo 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  eleventh  century,  died  in 
the  East  after  1 140). 

The  year  of  his  birth  may  have  been  1085,  a  fateful  year,  in 
which  Toledo  was  recaptured  from  the  Moors  by  the  Christian 
king  Alfonso  VL  "  It  was  a  fit  birthplace  for  the  greatest 
Jewish  poet  since  Bible  times.  East  and  West  met  in  Toledo. 
The  science  of  the  East  there  found  Western  Christians  to 
cultivate  it.  Jew,  Moor,  and  Christian  displayed  there  mutual 
toleration  which  existed  nowhere  else.  In  the  midst  of  this 
favourable  environment  Judah  Ha-levi  grew  to  early  maturity."  ^ 
It  is  probable  that  Judah  was  sent  by  his  father,  who  was  a  man 
of  means,  to  Lucena  (near  Cordova)  to  be  educated  at  the  school 
of  Alfasi.  It  was  probably  at  Lucena  that  he  became  the  friend 
of  Baruch  Albalia,  also  a  poet.  After  completing  his  studies  he 
returned  to  Toledo,  and  there  practised  as  a  physician  for  a  time, 
afterwards  removing  to  Cordova.  But  his  heart  was  in  the  East, 
and  after  the  completion  of  his  Al-Khazari  he  decided  to  set 
out  for  Palestine.  He  arrived  in  Alexandria,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  entreaties  of  friends  not  to  proceed  further,  he  continued 
his  journey  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  visited  Tyre  and  Damascus, 
and,  according  to  tradition,  arrived  ultimately  outside  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  where,  it  is  said,  he  was  ridden  down  and  killed 
by  a  fanatical  Arab,  chanting  as  he  died  the  most  moving  of  all 
his  compositions,  the  famous  Ode  to  Sion. 

Judah  was  a  real  poet,  and  displayed  his  gifts  in 
this  respect  in  his  youth.  He  won  the  admiration  of 
his  friend  and  senior,  the  poet  Moses  ibn   Ezra.     A 

^  I.  .-\brahanis,  op.  cit.  p.  75. 


284  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

large  place  in  his  non-liturgical  poems  is  occupied 
by  pieces  which  are  poems  of  friendship  or  eulogy. 
In  this  connexion  figure  such  personalities  as  Moses 
ibn  Ezra,  Samuel  ha-Nagid,  and  Baruch  Albalia,  as 
well  as  many  others.  Sometimes  he  sadly  com- 
memorates the  death  of  friends,  as  his  teacher  Isaac 
Alfasi,  Moses  ibn  Ezra,  and  the  latter's  brothers  Judah 
and  Isaac,  and  the  pathetic  lamentation  over  the 
murdered  Solomon  ibn  Farissol  (May  3,  1108). 

His  religious  poems  are  pervaded  by  deep  and 
passionate  devotion  to  God.  Another  note  that 
recurs  is  his  profound  love  of  his  people  and  sym- 
pathy with  them  in  their  sufferings.  While  "  Edom 
and  Ishmael  riot  in  the  Holy  City,"  Israel  is  every- 
where in  bondage.  In  one  poem  the  poet  represents 
Israel  as  pleading  with  God  for  release  from  the 
harsh  bondage. 

"  Come,  Beloved,  come  Thou  to  me, 
In  the  bower  of  lilacs  woo  me : 
Slay  the  friends  that  would  pursue  me. 

"  Harps  and  chimes  and  cups  all  golden 
To  the  joy  of  old  embolden, 
'Neath  the  radiant  glory  olden.'' 

God  answers  : 

"  Bide  thou  thy  time — within  thy  soul  be  peace, 
Nor  ask  complaining  when  thy  pain  shall  cease ; 
Speak,  rhyme,  and  sing,  for  victory  is  thine. 
Nigh  thee  My  tent  is  pitched,  and  thou  art  Mine." 

National  feeling,  patriotism,  and  religion  blended 
to  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  spirit  of  mediaeval 
Judaism.  They  find  their  perfect  expression  in  the 
poems  of  Judah  ha-Levi.  Judah  believed  literally  in 
the  return  to  Sion,  and  this  motive  deterri^ined  his 
last  pilgrimage.  His  famous  "Zionide" — the  ode 
addressed  to  Sion — has  found  a  place  in  the  Liturgy 


THE   MEDIEVAL   POETRY  285 

of  the  9th  of  Ab,  among  the  Kinoth,  or  lamentations 
which  commemorate  the  fall  of  the  Holy  City.  The 
opening  stanza  is  thus  rendered  by  Mrs.  Lucas 
{Jewish  Year,  p.  1 29  f.) :  ^ 

Art  thou  not,  Zion^fain 
To  send  forth  greetings  from  thy  sacred  rock 
Unto  thy  captive  train, 
Who  greet  thee  as  the  remnants  of  thy  flock  ? 
Take  thou  on  every  side, 

East,  west,  and  south  and  north,  their  greetings  multi- 
plied. 
Sadly  he  greets  thee  still. 
The  prisoner  of  hope  who,  day  and  night, 
Sheds  ceaseless  tears,  like  dew  on  Hermons  hill. 
Would  that  they  fell  upon  thy  mountain's  height  I 

More  than  300  of  Judah's  poems  have  been  incorporated  into 
the  Jewish  Liturgy.  A  number  of  these  have  been  rendered 
into  English  verse  by  Mrs.  Lucas  in  The  Jeivish  Year.  Several 
collections  of  Judah's  poems  have  been  published  (original 
texts).  The  most  complete  edition  of  the  Diva?i  is  that  of 
Brody,  published  for  the  Mekit::e  Nirdmiiiin  Society  (Berlin, 
1894  and  following  years)  ;  the  Bethulaih  bath  YehitdaJi,  edited 
by  S.  D.  Luzzatto  (Prague,  1840)  ;  the  same  editor  also 
issued  an  edition  of  the  Divan  ;  another  \olume,  entitled  Tal 
A?'oth  (Przemysl),  appeared  in  188 1. 

Translations  have  been  published  by  Sachs  (with  text),  Zunz 
{.Synag:  Poesie),  (leiger  {Dkua?i),  Heller,  Kiimpf,  Steinschneider 
{Mamia),  and  Sulzbach. 

In  English  in  Treasures  of  Oxford  (185 1),  Nina  Davis 
("Songs  of  Exile"),  E.  G.  King  (in  f(2J^-,  First  Series,  vii.  464), 
J.  Jacobs  ("Jewish  Ideals"),  Mrs.  Lucas  {pp.  cit.),  and  Lady 
Magnus  ("Jewish  Portraits");  also  in  French,  Italian,  and 
Russian. 

Judah,  though  he  seems  to  have  doubted  at  one  time  their 
propriety  to  Hebrew^,  uses  the  most  complicated  Arabic  metres 
in  his  poems. 

The  New-Hebrew  poetry  of  which  Judah  is  the 
best  representative  hardly  survived  him.  The  old 
inspiration  dried  up  under  the  stress  of  persecution. 

^  The  whole  rendering  is  strikingly  successful  and  beautiful. 


2%  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIJ^VAL  JUDAISM 

Al-Charizi,  indeed  (thirteenth  century  ^),  "  the  genial 
poet  of  macames,"  who,  Hke  Judah  ha-Levi,  lived 
in  Spain  and  travelled  in  the  Orient,  was  celebrated 
as  a  poet.  He  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  great 
representative  of  the  ancient  classical  school  of  Spain. 
But  his  poems  are  very  different  in  spirit  from  those 
of  his  great  predecessors. 

Al-Charizi  was  a  serious  student  of  literature  as  well  as  a 
poet.  A  master  both  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  he  shone  as  a 
translator  (from  Arabic  into  Hebrew).  He  rendered  the 
Mahunat  of  the  Arab  poet  Hariri  of  Bozrah  into  Hebrew,  as 
well  as  some  of  Maimonides'  (Arabic)  works  (the  commentary 
on  the  Mishnah,  and,  in  part,  the  Guide).  His  masterpiece  was 
a  work,  composed  in  Hebrew  (1218-20),  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Tachkenioni.,  which  is  supposed  to  mean  "  the  wise 
one."  This  was  written  in  the  form  of  the  Arabic  inacamc 
{rnakama),  a  curious  species  of  rhyming  prose. 

The  style  of  the  jnacanie  may  be  gathered  from  the  following 
reproduction  of  one  of  Charizi's  sentences  : 

As  if  the  word  of  the  Lord  of  life— in  Israel  ivei'e  no  longer 
rife;  like  her  of  old — of  whom  zve  are  told — "  other  vineyards  / 
protected — my  oivji,  alas  I  that  I  neglected  ■''''  (Cant.  i.  6).''^ 

This  citation  illustrates  the  clever  way  in  which  Charizi  inter- 
weaves Biblical  quotations  so  as  to  conform  to  the  requirements 
of  the  rhyme.  The  macanie  is  a  species  of  spoken  drama,  in 
which  two  personages  are  supposed  to  take  part  :  the  hero,  who 
relates  various  episodes  about  himself,  and  the  narrator,  who 
acts  as  a  sort  of  chorus,  drawing  out  the  hero  by  his  questions. 
In  Charizi's  poem  the  narrator  is  Heman  the  Ezrahite  and  the 
hero  Heber  the  Kenite.  "Each* episode  described  by  the 
hero  is  the  subject  of  a  single  viakaina  (poem),  and  has  no 
close  connexion  with  that  which  follows,  but  its  rambling, 
rhyming  prose  is  extended  and  diversified  by  the  interpolation 
of  smaller  poems,  in  absolutely  strict  rhythm  and  rhyme,  and 
generally  of  exalted  strain.  .  .  .  The  episodes  of  the  '  Tach- 
kemoni '  cover  a  wide  field  of  remarkable  experiences,  varying 
from  a  banquet  given  to  him  in  an  important  city  of  Babjdonia 
(where,  as  the  guest  of  Heman,  Alcharizi  tells  of  all  the  noble 

^  Neither  the  date  of  his  birth  nor  that  of  his  death  Is  known. 
His  Hebrew  name  was  Judah  ben  Solomon  ben  Hophni.  He 
was  surnamed  "  Al-Charizi." 

-  Cited  from /A'  i.  391 1  {s.v.  "  Al-Harizi  "). 


THE   MEDIAEVAL   POETRY  287 

poets  he  has  known  in  Spain)  to  a  battle  between  Arabs  '  in  the 
tents  of  Kedar/  a  debate  between  an  ant  and  a  flea,  or  a  re- 
proof by  a  village  chanticleer  escaped  from  the  butcher's  knife."  ' 
Charizi  .was  witty  as  well  as  accomplished,  and  though,  as  he 
complains,  the  victim  of  misfortune  throughout  his  life,  he  could 
rise  superior  to  thoughts  of  bitterness.  He  ranks  high  as  a 
poet,  and  was  a  supreme  master  of  all  the  technical  devices 
of  the  art. 

A  poet  of  a  remarkable  character,  who  may  fitly 
be  mentioned  in  this  connexion,  was  Immanuel  ben 
Solomon  ben  Jekuthiel  (i  270-1 330),  commonly  known 
as  "  Hnmanuel  of  Rome,"  the  contemporary,  and  per- 
haps friend,  of  Dante.  Immanuel  was  a  fine  scholar, 
well  versed  in  Biblical  and  Talmudical  literature, 
mathematics,  astronomy,  medicine,  and  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  Arabians  and  Christians.  He 
wrote  various  works  on  Jewish  subjects  (herme- 
neutics  and  Biblical  commentaries  on  nearly  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible).  But  his  really  original  work 
was  his  poetry. 

He  composed  both  in  Italian  and  Hebrew,  but  only  a  few  of 
his  Italian  poems  have  survived.  "The  child  of  his  time,  in 
sympathy  with  the  social  and  intellectual  life  of  Italy  of  that 
period,  he  had  acquired  the  then  prevalent  pleasing,  easy, 
humorous,  harmlessly  flippant  tone,  and  the  art  of  treating 
questionable  subjects  wittily  and  elegantly.  He  was  acquainted 
with  Dante's  works,  and  was  influenced  by  them.  He  introduced 
the  sonnet  form  into  Hebrew  literature,  and  alternate  instead 
of  single  rhyme."  ^  In  old  age  he  collected  his  Hebrew  poems 
into  a  Divan  which  he  entitled  Mechabberoth.  The  poems  here 
collected  deal  with  episodes  of  Jewish  life,  and  comprise  satires, 
letters,  prayers,  and  dirges  intermingled.  The  Hebrew  idiom 
used  by  the  poet  lends  an  added  charm  to  his  work.  "His 
parodies  of  Biblical  and  Talmudic  sentences,  his  clever  allusions 
and  puns,  his  equivocations,  are  gems  of  diction,  on  account  of 
which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  translate  his  poems  into 
another  language."^  One  poem  in  the  collection  (No.  28) 
entitled  Hell  and  Paradise  {ha-Tophet  we-ha-Eden)  is  a  vision 
clearly  modelled  on  Dante's  Divi7ie  Comedy.  Immanuel  was  an 
admirer  of  Charizi,  who  in  some  respects  influenced  the  form  of 

1  /^  i-  39'  I-  ^  IF.  vii.  563.  •■>  JE  ibid. 


288  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

his  poems.  By  later  Jewish  authorities  {c\<^:  Joseph  Caro)  his 
poems  were  censured  as  frivolous  and  immoral,  and  they  bore 
an  ill-repute.  By  one  of  history's  ironies,  however,  it  seems 
probaijle  that  the  metrical  form  of  Maimonides'  Creed  known  as 
Yii^dal^  which  is  printed  in  the  Jewish  Prayer  Books,  and 
universally  used  in  synagogue  worship,  is  really  a  composition 
of  Immanuel's  (see  Dr.  H.  Hirschfeld  in  JQR^  New  Series, 
V.  529  ff.,  April,  191 5).  The  Divan  was  first  printed  at  Brescia 
in  1491,  and  has  been  reprinted  several  times  since. 

The  elaboration  of  the  verse  structure  and  other 
devices  used  for  poetical  purposes  were  steadily 
developed,  especially  in  the  Spanish  school  of  Jewish 
poetry,  under  Arabic  influence.  We  have  already  seen 
that  rhymed  prose  was  used  as  a  medium,  as  well  as 
verse  proper.  Compositions  were  also  written  in 
exact  metre  (according  to  a  fixed  scheme),  while  in 
others  only  the  number  of  syllables  is  counted,  and 
even  this  not  always.  The  treatment  of  rhyme  was 
also  much  elaborated ;  there  were  single  and  double 
rhymes,  the  catchword  (refrain),  the  "punning" 
rhyme  (Tajnis),  as  well  as  the  acrostic.  These  and 
other  points  of  a  similar  character  can,  of  course, 
only  be  studied  adequately  in  the  original  texts.^ 
Invaluable  aid  is  given  in  these  directions  by  the 
authors  of  The  New-Hebrew  School  of  Poets,  already 
referred  to. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  measure  is  determined  neither  by 
the  quantity  of  the  syllables  nor  by  the  accent,  but  depends 
upon  tlie  difference  between  a  full  syllable  (whether  marked  by 
a  long  or  a  short  vowel)  and  one  that  is  not  full  {i.e.  begins 
wkh  a  vocal  shewa).  The  former  is  called  ienu'ah,  the  latter 
yath'ed  (indicated  by  -  and  kj-  respectively).     Thus  the  line 

(idd7i  ''dlam  dshcr  uidlak 
would  be  marked 

i.e.  it  consists  of  a  yath'ed_  (^  -)  followed  by  two  tenu^oih  (-  -), 
followed  by  another  ydthed  and  two  tcnu''oth. 

^  To  the  technical  terms  already  referred  to  should  be  added 
the  form  called  "mostegab,"  in  which  a  Biblical  verse  is  used  at 
the  beginning  of  every  stanza. 


THE   MEDIEVAL  POETRY  289 

It  has  been  impossible  in  this  sketch  to  refer  to 
the  work  of  many  of  the  Hturgical  poets  of  other 
countries  than  Spain.  Thus  in  the  tenth  century 
Simon  ben  Isaac  of  Worms  was  a  poet  in  the  real 
sense  of  the  term.  In  the  eleventh  century  Germany 
produced  Moses  ben  Kalonymus,  Meshullam  ben 
Kalonymus,  Simon  ben  Isaac,  and  Gershon  of 
Judah  ;  in  the  twelfth  century,  Jekuthiel  ben  Moses 
of  Speyer,  Menachem  ben  Machir  of  Ratisbon,  Meir 
ben  Isaac,  Kalonymus  ben  Judah,  Eliezer  ben 
Nathan,  Ephraim  ben  Isaac  of  Ratisbon,  and 
Ephraim  ben  Jacob  of  Bonn  ;  and  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  Moses  ben  Chasdai,  Eleazar  ben  Judah  of 
Worms,  and  Eliezer  ben  Joel  ha-Levi.  In  France 
Solomon  ben  Abun  (twelfth  century)  stands  out,  as 
also  does  Abraham  Bedaresi,  surnamed  "  the  Orator  ". 
^Abraham  of  Beziers,  thirteenth  century),  who,  with 
his  son  Jeda'aya  (surnamed  "  ha-Tenini "),  were 
meritorious  payyetanirn.  Italy,  where,  according  to 
some  scholars,  Kalir  lived,  produced  payyetanirn 
from  the  tenth  to  the  eighteenth  century.  But  after 
the  fourteenth  century  the  piyyut  was  not  so  much 
cultivated,  and  new  pieces  were  rarely  embodied  in 
the  Liturgy  after  that  period.  Among  the  eminent 
poets  of  the  Spanish-Jewish  school  ought  to  be 
reckoned  Joseph  Abitur,  one  of  the  earliest  (died 
970),  who  composed  many  liturgical  pieces,^  and  to 
this  school  also  belong  Isaac  Ghayyat,  Judah  ben 
Bileam,  Bachya  ibn  Pakuda  (the  author  of  Th 
Duties  of  the  Heart),  and  Isaac  ben  Reuben  of 
Barcelona.  Finally,  reference  may  here  be  made  to 
the  work  of  a  late  poet,  Solomon  al-Kabetz  of 
Safed  (sixteenth  century),  the  author  of  the  famous 
Sabbath-hymn,  Lekah  Dodi,  which  is  sung  in  the 
synagogues  on  Friday  evening.^  Solomon  al-Kabetz 
represents  the  fine  devotional  element  with  which  the 

^  For  an  English  rendering  of  a  Sabbath  hymn  by  him  see 
The  Jewish    Year,  pp.  37  ff.         ^  Seep.  190  above. 

U 


290  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

Kabbalistic  mysticism  enriched  the  Liturgy.  The 
hymn  is  a  poetical  greeting  of  "the  Bride  of  the 
Sabbath."  The  Almighty  is  addressed  and  asked 
to  meet  His  bride: 

Come  forth,  my  friend,  the  bride  to  meet, 
Come,  0  my  friend,  the  Sabbath  greet. 

And  these  lines  form  a  refrain. ^ 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Kabbalistic  poets,  who  also 
belongs  to  the  sixteenth  century,  is  Israel  Najara.  He  Hved  and 
died  in  the  East.  His  Songs  of  Israel  i^Zemiroth  Yisrael)  is  a 
work  of  high  merit.  It  contains  a  collection  of  poems  on  the 
marriage  of  God  and  Israel  which  are  couched  in  sensuous 
language.  He  wrote  many  piyyutim  (some  in  Aramaic),  and 
these,  with  his  hymns,  have  found  a  place  in  many  Machzorim. 
He  also  composed  secular  poems,  and  evidently  was  well 
acquainted  with  many  languages.  For  an  illuminating  dis- 
cussion of  the  piyyutim  in  particular,  and  the  later  Hebrew 
poetry  in  general,  reference  may  be  made  to  Dr.  I.  Abrahams's 
review  of  The  Tewish  Year  \n  JQR,  First  Series,  xi.  pp.  64-91. 


VI 

SOME   OTHER   FORMS   OF   LITERATURE 

A  brief  reference  to  some  other  forms  of  literature, 
which  were  cultivated  by  the  Jews  of  the  mediaeval 
period,  is  necessary  in  any  account  of  their  literary 
activities.  The  classes  of  literature  that  require  some 
notice  in  this  connexion  are  folk-tales,  travel-tales, 
and  historical  works  (chronicles). 

(i) 

A  good  example  of  the  folk-tale  rendered  into 
Hebrew  is  Abraham  ibn  Chasdai's  Prince  and 
Dervish    (Ben    ha-melek    we-ha-N azir),    which    was 

^  See  Mrs.  Lucas's  beautiful  rendering  in  The  Jewish  Vear^ 
pp.  16711 


SOME  OTHER  FORMS  OF  LITERATURE  291 

compiled  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  stories  embodied  in  this  collection  are  really  of 
Indian  origin,  and  belong  to  the  *'  Barlaam  and 
Joshaphat"  cycle.  Chasdai  translated  from  an 
Arabic  version  of  the  original  Persian,  and  may 
have  introduced  some  original  features  into  his  book. 

The  theme  of  the  story  is  a  prince's  conversion  to  the  ascetic 
life  and  the  life  of  renunciation  associated  with  the  teachings  of 
the  Buddha. 

Another  collection  of  a  similar  kind  was  the 
Hebrew  translation  of  the  famous  Fables  of  Bidpai, 
known  in  Hebrew  as  Kalila  we-Dimna,  which  also 
belongs  probably  to  the  thirteenth  century.  This 
version  is  attributed  to  a  certain  Rabbi  Joel,  and 
played  an  important  part  in  the  diffusion  of  the 
stories  throughout  Europe.  It  was  rendered  into 
Latin  by  John  of  Capua,  a  converted  Jew,  in  1270, 
and  this  became  the  basis  of  a  German  version  (from 
which  later  were  derived  Danish  and  Dutch  versions) 
as  well  as  of  a  Spanish.  This  book,  according  to 
Dr.  Joseph  Jacobs,  influenced  Europe  more  than  any 
book  except  the  Bible. 

See  further  the  introduction  to  Kalilah  and  Diinnah  or  the 
Fables  of  Bidpai^  by  I.  G.  N.  Keith-P^alconer  (Cambridge, 
1885).  The  Hebrew  version  of  Rabbi  Joel  was  edited  by 
Joseph  Derenbourg  with  a  French  translation,  and  a  collation 
with  the  Directorium  {Deux  versions  hebraiques  du  livre  de 
Kalilah  et  Dimnah^  Paris,  1881). 

Another  important  name  in  this  connexion  is  that 
of  Berachya  ha-Nakdan  ("  the  Punctuator  "),  an  Eng- 
lish Jew,  who  is  chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  a 
number  of  "  Fox  Fables  "  {Mishle  Shii'alim),  which 
belong  to  the  ^sop-cycle. 

Berachya  was  a  versatile  writer,  and  translated  other  works 
(seeyiS"iii.  53  f.).  He  was  the  author  also  of  some  elaborate 
ethical  treatises,  which  have  been  edited  in  a  sumptuous 
edition  by  Prof.  H.  Gollancz  {The  Ethical  Treatises  of  Berachya, 
London,  1902). 

U   2 


292  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIEVAL  JUDAISM 

Another  collection  is  contained  in  Joseph  Zabara's 
Book  oj  Delight,  written  in  1200.^  The  author,  like 
Berachya,  uses  rhymed  prose,  which  is  interspersed 
with  snatches  of  verse.  It  is  a  poetical  romance, 
partly  autobiographical  in  character,  and  contains 
among  other  material  a  collection  of  fables. 

An  account  of  the  book  is  given,  with  a  summary  translation, 
by  Dr.  I.  Abrahams  in  JQR,  First  Series,  vi.  502  ff. 

To  the  literature  already  adduced  above  should  be  added  Joseph 
Jacobs's /^w/j^  Ideals  ("The  Diffusion  of  Folk-Tales"),  and 
for  Abraham  ibn  Chasdai,  J.  Chotzner's  Hebrew  Humour, 
pp.  ii7ff.  (London,  1905).  See  also  Dr.  Abrahams's  Short 
History  of  Jewish  Literature,  chap.  xv. 


(ii) 

The  Jews,  from  the  circumstances  attending  their 
dispersion  over  the  world,  acquired  a  considerable 
knowledge  of,  and  interest  in,  geographical  matters. 
Many  notices  of  places  and  peoples  occur  scattered 
about  in  the  earlier  literature  ;  interest  was  especially 
strong  in  the  question  as  to  the  place  of  exile  of  the 
Ten  Tribes.  But  books  of  travel  were  not  written 
till  the  twelfth  century. 

A  romance,  however,  based  upon  the  interest  that 
existed  in  the  question  of  the  Twelve  Tribes  was 
written  about  880,  called  The  Diary  of  Eldad  the 
Danite.  It  tells  of  fabulous  Israelite  empires  living 
prosperously  and  happily  in  distant  parts  of  the 
earth.  This  romance  was  the  source  of  the  story 
about  "  Prester  John."  Eldad's  fanciful  narrative  was 
accepted  as  true  by  his  contemporaries. 

Various  versions  of  the  story  exist  and  have  been  published 
(Mantua,  1480;  Constantinople,  1516,  1519;  etc.);  also  by 
jellinek,  etc.,  Beth  ha-Midrash,  iii.,  vi.  It  was  early  translated 
into  Latin  (1584),  into  Arabic,  and  into  German  (1700,  1723). 
It  is  doubtful  whether  Eldad  was  a  bona-fide  traveller. 

*  Joseph  was  born  and  died  in  Barcelona. 


SOME  OTHER  FORMS  OF  LITERATURE  293 

The  first  real  travel-book  was  the  famous  Itinerary 
of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  merchant  who  in  1160 
started  on  a  long  journey,  and  visited  a  large  part 
of  Europe  and  Asia  (including  Jerusalem  and 
Bagdad).  Though  not  free  from  admixture  of 
fabulous  elements,  Benjamin's  book  gives  much 
valuable  information  about  the  places  he  visited. 

Another  Jew  who  wrote  a  travel-book  at  about  the 
same  time  (travelled  during  the  years  1179-80)  was 
Petachiah  of  Ratisbon,  whose  book  contains  interest- 
ing information,  especially  about  the  reputed  tombs  of 
ancient  worthies.  A  more  important  contribution 
to  geographical  knowledge  is  the  Kaphtor  wa- 
Pherach  of  Esthori  Parchi  (completed  1322).  He 
visited  Palestine,  and  devoted  seven  years  to  the 
careful  exploration  of  the  country,  making  a  special 
study  of  ancient  sites.  He  was  a  remarkably 
accurate  observer,  and  collected  his  material  (in- 
cluding ancient  and  contemporary  references)  with 
the  greatest  care. 

Jews  continued  to  visit  Palestine  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  with  increasing  facility.  Letters  and 
narratives  describing  these  visits  are  numerous.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  appeared  the  Itinera  Mundi 
('Iggereth  Vrchoth  'Oldm)  of  Abraham  Farissol 
(written  1524).  This  treatise  embodies  original 
research,  as  well  as  work  based  upon  the  contri- 
butions of  Christian  and  Arabian  geographers. 

Parchi's  work  was  -edited,  with  German  translation,  by 
Grunhiit,  191 2. 

The  best  edition  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela's  work  is  that  of 
A.  Asher,  The  Itinerary  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (with  English 
translation,  London,  1840-41)  ;  an  English  translation  (with  a 
critical  text)  is  also  given  (with  notes)  in  the  JQR^  First  Series, 
vols.  xvii.  and  xviii.,  by  M.  N.  Adler  (published  in  book  form, 
London,  1907). 

For  Petachiah  of  Ratisbon  the  edition  of  A.  Benisch's  Travels 
of  Petachia  of  Ratisbon  (with  English  translation)  is  available 
(London,  1856). 


294  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIiEVAL  JUDAISM 

(iii) 

In  the  Middle  Ages  Jewish  histories  usually 
assumed  the  form  of  uncritical  chronicles,  mixing 
legend  with  fact.  In  this  respect  the  Jewish  writers 
were  children  of  their  time.  An  early  example  is 
The  Chronicle  of  Achimaaz,  written  in  1055  in 
rhymed  prose. 

More  important  is  Abraham  ibn  Daud,  the  philo- 
sopher (i  110-80),  whose  Sepher  ha-Kahhalah  ("Book 
of  Tradition  "),  written  in  1 161,  contains  much  valu- 
able information,  especially  concerning  the  period 
of  the  Geonim  and  the  Jews  of  Spain.  The  object 
of  the  book  was  to  present  the  chain  of  tradition 
as  unbroken  from  the  time  of  Moses  to  Ibn  Baud's 
own  time,  against  the  Karaites.  The  work  is  a 
valuable  historical  authority  on  many  matters. 

The  text  is  given  in  Neubauer's  MedicEval  Jewish  Chronicles^ 
vol.  i. 

One  of  the  sources  used  by  Ibn  Daud  was 
"  Josippon,"  the. curious  work  called  Sepher  Yosippon, 
which  gives  a  history  of  the  Jews  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  the  fall  of 
the  city  in  A.D.  70.  The  book,  which  for  long  passed 
as  "  the  Hebrew  Josephus,"  was  really  put  together  in 
the  tenth  century. 

Beginning  with  Adam,  the  author  passes  to  the  legendary 
history  of  Rome  and  Babylon,  and  revPevvs  the  story  of  Daniel, 
Zerubbabel,  the  Second  Temple,  and  Cyrus,  passing  on  to 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  then  proceeds  to  give  a  history  of 
the  Jews  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  The  book  is 
written  in  Biblical  Hebrew,  and  was  much  read  and  prized 
by  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  book,  which  has  suffered  much  from  copyists,  has  often 
been  printed.  Sebastian  Munster  issued  an  edition  (Basel, 
1 541).  Its  literary  problems  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  among  scholars  (see  JE  vii.  259  f.  and  the  literature 
there  cited). 


SOME  OTHER  FORMS  OF  LITERATURE  295 

Many  of  the  "  elegies "  or  selichoth  embodied  in 
the  Liturgy  contain  historical  episodes  ;  but  for  a 
long  time  after  Ibn  Daud  no  formal  historical  work 
appeared.  About  1 504  a  "  Book  of  Genealogies " 
{Sepher  Yuchasin)  saw  the  light.  Its  author  was 
the  famous  astronomer  Abraham  Zacuto,  who  had 
been  expelled  in  the  great  expulsion  from  Spain 
in  1492. 

"  In  this  work  Zacuto  gives  an  account  of  the  Oral  Law,  as 
transmitted  from  Moses,  through  the  elders,  prophets,  sages, 
and  the  like,  and  also  recounts  the  acts  and  monuments  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  surrounding  nations.  In 
like  manner,  space  is  given  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  the 
events  which  occurred  during  the  period  of  the  Second  Temple, 
the  characteristics  of  that  period,  the  princes  of  the  Captivity, 
and  the  rectors  of  the  Academies  of  Sura  and  Pumbeditha."  ^ 

The  work,  though  often  uncritical,  is  a  valuable  source  for 
Jewish  history.  A  complete  edition  by  Filipowski  appeared  in 
London  in  1857.     Many  previous  editions  had  appeared. 

With  the  above  we  may  fitly  conclude  our  account 
of  the  mediaeval  Jewish  historical  literature:  Later 
works,  of  a  somewhat  similar  kind,  were,  it  is  true, 
produced ;  but  these  fall  outside  the  mediaeval  period 
proper. 

David  Cans  (1541-1613),  a  German  Jew,  who  took  a  real 
interest  in  the  study  of  history,  produced  an  extremely  popular 
history  called  The  Bra?ich  of  David  [Zeniach  David).  The 
founder  of  historical  criticism  among  the  Jews,  Azariah  di 
Rossi  (1514-88),  wrote  a  history  called  The  Light  of  the  Eyes 
{Me'or  ''Eiiayim)  ;  and  Gedaliah  ibn  Jachya  (1515-87)  was  the 
author  of  a  highly  uncritical  work  called  T?ie  Chain  of  Tradition 
{Shalsheleth  ha-Kabbalah).  Mention  may  also  be  made  of 
Abraham  de  Porta  Leone's  Shields  of  the  Mighty  {Shilte  ha- 
Gibborim\  which  was  printed  in  Mantua  in  161 2,  and  Leon  da 
Modena's  Ceremonies  and  Ciistonis  of  the  Jews  (printed  in 
Paris,   1637). 

An  historical  chronicle  of  considerable  importance,  which, 
however,  belongs  to  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  mediaeval. 


JE  jrii.  627. 


296  RABBINICAL  AND  MEDIAEVAL  JUDAISM 

is  the  Seder  ^Olam  Rabbah,  the  earliest  post-ExiHc  chronicle 
preserved  in  the  Hebrew  language.  It  is  referred  to  in  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  and  in  its  present  form  contains  thirty 
chapters,  which  give  a  chronological  record  extending  from 
Adam  to  the  revolt  of  Bar-Cochb;i.  The  work,  which  is  of 
considerable  interest  and  importance,  was  first  printed  in 
Mantua  in  15 14.  It  has  been  reprinted  several  times,  and 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  commentaries.  Recent  editions 
are  those  of  Ratner  (with  critical  and  explanatory  notes  ; 
Wilna,  1897)  ;  A.  Marx  (first  ten  chapters  with  German 
translation  and  introduction  ;  Berlin,  1903)  ;  and  J.  M.  Leiner 
(containing  the  commentaries  of  Jacob  Emden  and  Elijah 
Wilna,  together  with  the  editor's  own  notes  ;  Warsaw,  1904). 

A  later  work,  supplementing  the  former,  is  the  Seder '■Qlam 
Zuta.  This  chronicle  extends  to  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
Exiliarchs. 

[The  best  collection  of  texts  for  the  chronicle  literature  is 
contained  m  Neubauer's  MedicBval  Chronicles^  2  vols.  (Oxford, 
1882,  1895),  with  a  valuable  introduction  and  chronological 
notes.  To  the  literature  already  adduced  should  be  added  the 
article  "Historiography"  (by  Dr.  Joseph  Jacobs)  in  JE  vi. 
423  ff.;  and  on  "Josippon"  an  article  by  Neuhauer  in  JQR^ 
First  Series,  xi.  355  ff. 

A  legendary  recasting  of  the  history  of  the  world  from  the 
Creation  to  the  death  of  Judas  Maccabaius  is  contained  in 
the  Chronicles  of  Jerahmeel^  edited  in  an  English  translation, 
with  introduction,  by  Dr.  M.  Gaster,  1899.] 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE 
APPENDIX 

AND 

ADDENDA 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


I. —  To    the    MaccahcBun    Period    and    the  Establishment  of 
Roman  Rule  in  Palestine. 

B.C. 

587.  The  fall  of  Jerusalem  (to  Nebuchadnezzar). 

550.  Cyrus. 

548  and  following  years.  Deutero-Isaiah. 

539,  The  fall  of  Babylon. 

536.  The  beginnings  of  the  Return. 

529.  Cambyses. 

521.  Darius  I.  (Hystaspis). 

521-332.   The  Persian  period. 

520.  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

520-516.  The  building  of  the  Second  Temple. 

490.  Battle  of  Marathon. 

486-484.  Revolt  of  Egypt  and  Persian  reconquest. 

485-464.  Xerxes  T. 

464-424.  Artaxerxes  I.  CTongimanus). 

450  ?.  Malachi. 

448.  Revolt  of  Megabyzus  in  Syria. 

445.  Nehemiah  Tirshatha. 

444.  Fortification  of  Jerusalem. 

[Date  of  Ezra  s  Mission  doubtful ;    if  placed  in 
the    reign    of    Artaxerxes    II.,     probably    between 
397  and  380.] 
424-404.  Darius  II.  (Nothus). 
404-358.  Artaxerxes  II.  (Mnemon). 

[?  Ezra  promulgates  a  new  edition  of  the  Mosaic 
Torah,  containing  Priestly  Code,  about  380.] 
358-338.  Artaxerxes  III.  (Ochus). 
335-331.  Darius  III.  (Codomanus). 

[Jaddua  High  Priest.] 
332.  Battle    of    Issus ;     Persian    Empire    overthrown    by 
Alexander  the  Great ;    the  Samaritan  schism. 

[A  Samaritan  temple  erected  on  Mount  Gerizim.] 
-332-166.   The  pre-Maccahcsan  Greek  period, 
331.  Foundation  of  Alexandria. 

299 


300  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

323-285.  Ptolemy  I.  Soter,  king  of  Egypt. 
[Onias  I.,  Simon  I.,  High  Priests.] 
320.  Capture   of    Jerusalem   by   Ptolemy ;     Judcea  passes 

tinder  Egyptian  rule. 
285-247.  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus. 

[Eleazar  and  Manasseh  High  Priests.] 
C.  250.  Translation  of  the  Pentateuch  into  Greek  (LXX). 
[?  300-250.  The  Chronicler  (author  of  i  and  2  Chronicles 

and  Ezra-Nehemiah).] 
247-222.  Ptolemy  III.  Euergetes. 

[Onias  II.  High  Priest.] 
223-187.  Antiochus  III.  Magnus,  king  of  Syria. 

[Simon  II.  High  Priest.] 
203.  Capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Antiochus  ;    Judcsa  passes 

under  Syrian  rule. 
199-198.  Jerusalem  captured  by  Scopas  for  the  Egyptian 

king    Ptolemy    V.    Epiphanes,    but    is    defeated    by 

Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  at  Paneas. 
187-175.  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator. 
187.  The  sacrilege  of  Heliodorus. 

180  ?.  Composition  of  the  Wisdom  of  Ben-Sira  in  Hebrew. 
175-163.  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria. 
174.  Deposition  of  the  High  Priest  Onias   III.  ;     Joshua 

(Jason)  succeeds  him. 
171.  Jason  supplanted  by  Menelaus. 
170.  Onias  III.  murdered. 
170,    168.  Massacres    (by    Antiochus    and    Apollonius)    at 

Jerusalem. 
168  (Dec).  The  "  abomination  of  desolation  "  set  up. 
167.  Maccabaean  revolt  (headed  by  Mattathias)  breaks  out. 
166.  Death  of  Mattathias  ;    Judas  Maccabaeus  heads  the 

revolt. 
166-165.  Judas  organises  his  army ;    victory  at  Emmaus. 
165.  Victory  of   Jews  at  Beth-Zur ;    rededication  of  the 

Temple  (December). 
164.  Book  of  Daniel  (?),  death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
163-162.  Judas  defeated  at  Beth-Zacharias. 
162.  Alcimus    (Jakim)    High    Priest ;     massacre    of    the 

Assidaeans. 
161.  Judas  victorious  at  Adasa  ;    his  defeat  and  death  at 

Eleasa. 
160.  Death  of  Alcimus.  * 
158-142.  Jonathan  (successor  of  Judas). 
353.  Jonathan  High  Priest;    occupation  of  Jerusalem. 
146.  Destruction  of  Carthage  by  the  Romans. 
142.  Assassination  of  Jonathan  ;    Simon  succeeds. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  301 

B.C. 

142-135.  Simon  Maccabaeus. 

135.  Assassination   of   Simon  ;     his   son,    John   Hyrcanus, 

succeeds. 
135-105.  John  Hyrcanus. 
135.  The  parties  called   Pharisees  and   Sadducees  emerge 

for  the  first  time. 
132  ?.  Wisdom  of  Ben-Sira  translated  into  Greek, 
109-108.  Destruction  of  the  Samaritan  temple  on  Mount 

Gerizim  by  John  Hyrcanus. 
105-104.  Aristobulus  I.  (assumes  title  of  "  king  "). 
104-78.  Alexander  JanucTeus. 
78-69.  Salome  Alexandra   ^widow  of  Alexander  Jannaeus) 

queen-regnant  ;    the  Pharisaic  reaction. 
69  and   following  years.  The  brothers  Hyrcanus   H.   and 

Aristobulus    II.  ;     rise    of    Antipater,    who    attaches 

himself  to  Hyrcanus  ;    outbreak  of  civil  war. 
65.  Intervention  of  the  Roman  general  Scaurus. 
64-63    Pompey  arrives  in  Syria  ;  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus 

submit  their  claims  to  him. 
63.  Jerusalem  surrenders  to  Pompey  ;  the  Temple  captured 

— Pompey  enters  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
63.  Hyrcanus  II.  High  Priest ;    Judaea  controlled  by  the 

Romans. 
57.  Reorganisation  of  Judaea  by  Gabinius. 
48.  Battle  of  Pharsalia  ;    death  of  Pompey. 
63-48  ?.  Composition  of  the  Psalms  of  Solomon. 
37-4.  Herod  the  Great  king  of  Judaea. 
4  B.C.-6  A.D.  Archelaus,  ethnarch  of  Judaea,  Samaria,  and 

Idumea. 
6  A.D.  Deposition  of  Archelaus  ;    Judaea  becomes  a  Roman 

province. 

II. — To  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Suppression  of 
the  Second  Revolt  (a.d.  135). 

4    B.C.-39    A.D.  Herod    Antipas    ruler    over    Galilee    and 

Peraea  (Jesus'  sovereign). 
4  B.C.-34  -A-.D.  Philip  (son  of  Herod  the  Great)  tetrarch  of 

Iturea. 
40  B.C.-20  A.D.  Philo  of  Alexandria. 

A.D. 

6.  Census  of  Quirinius  ;    revolt  of  Zealots  under  Judas. 
6-9.  Coponius  Roman  procurator  of  Judaea. 
9-12.  Marcus  Ambivius  procurator. 
12-15.  Annius  Rufus  procurator. 
14-37.  Tiberius  Emperor. 


302  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


26-36.  Pontius  Pilate  procurator. 

29  ?.  Crucifixion  of  Jesus. 

30  (or  35).  Conversion  of  St.  Paul. 
36-37,  Marcellus  procurator  of  Judaea. 
37-41.  Marullus  procurator. 

37-41.  Caligula  Emperor. 

37.  Birth  of  Josephus. 

38.  Jews  persecuted  in  Alexandria. 
41-54.  Claudius  Emperor. 

41-44.  lierod  Agrippa  I.  king  of  Judaea. 

44.  Death  of  Herod  {cf.  Acts  xii.). 

44-46.  Cuspius  Fadus  procurator  of  Jud-Ta. 

46-48.  Tiberius  Alexander  procurator, 

48-52.  Cumanus  procurator. 

50-100.  Herod   Agrippa   II.   ruler   of   various   districts   in 

the  north  of  Palestine  (the  last  of  the  Herods). 
52-58.  Felix  procurator. 
54-68.  Nero  Emperor. 
58  ?-6i.  Fortius  Festus  procurator. 
61-65.  Albinus  procurator, 
64,  Burning    of    Rome    and    persecution    of    Christians ; 

[?  death  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  by  martyrdom.] 
65-66.  Gessius  Florus  procurator  of  Judaea. 
66.  Outbreak  of  the  Jewish  revolt  in  Palestine. 
69-79.  Vespasian  Emperor. 
70.  Titus  destroys  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple. 
70.  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai  establishes  a  Rabbinical  School 

at  Jamnia, 
76-79.  Josephus  completes  his  history  of  the  Jewish  War. 
79-81.  Titus  Emperor. 
81-96.  Domitian  Emperor. 
93-94-  Josephus  completes  his  Antiquities. 
96-98,  Nerva  Emperor. 
98-117.  Trajan  Emperor, 

100  ?.  Synod  of  Jamnia  ;    O.T.  Canon  finally  fixed. 
1 1 7-1 1 8.  Revolt  of  Jews  in  Palestine. 
1 17-138.  Hadrian  Emperor. 
132-135.  Revolt  of  Bar-Cochba. 
135  ?.  Martyrdom  of  R,  Akiba. 


HI. — The  Talmudic  and  Geonic  Period. 


A.D. 


140-175.  Revival  of  the  Jewish  Schools  in  Palestine. 
C.  190.  Official  text  of  the  Mishnah  fixed  by  R.   Judah 
ha -Nasi. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  303 


219.  Babylonian  Schools  founded  at  Sura  and  Nehardea 

by  Rab  and  Samuel  respectively. 

[Later  a  School  at  Pumbeditha  founded  by  Judah 
b.  Ezekiel  (220-299).] 
220-500.  Period  of  the  Amoraim. 
320-370.  Decay  of  Palestinian  Schools  ;    completion  of  the 

Palestinian  (Jerusalem)  Talmud. 
360.  The  Patriarch  (Palestinian)  Hillel  II.  fixes  the  Jewish 

calendar  (still  in  use). 
499.  Death  of  Rabina  ;    Babylonian  Talmud  completed. 
589-1038.  Period  of  the  Geonim  (heads  of  the  Babylonian 

Schools  at  Sura  and  Pumbeditha  ;    see  pp.  209/.). 
711.  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabs. 

[Eighth  to  thirteenth  centuries  Jews  flourish  in 
Spain.] 
729.  Victory  of  Charles  Martel  over  the  Arabs  at  Tours. 
761  and  following  years.  Rise  of  the  Karaite  sect  (founded 

by  Anam.). 
892-942.  Saadya  (appointed  Gaon  of  Sura  in  928). 
980-1037.  Avicenna  (Mohammedan  philosopher). 
998-1038.  Plai,  the  last  of  the  Geonim. 


IV. — The  MedicBval  Period. 

A.D. 

1021-1058  (or  1070).  Solomon  ibn  Gebirol. 

1 040-1 105.  Rashi  (founder  of  French  school  of  exegesis). 

1096.  Beginning  of  the  Crusades  (followed  by  persecution 

of  Jews). 
1070-1139.  Moses  ibn  Ezra  (Spanish  Jewish  poet). 
1085-1145.  Judah  ha-Levi. 
1092  ?-ii67.  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (exegete). 
1 135-1204.  Maimonides. 
1 160-1235.  David  Kimhi. 
1 1 65-1 1 73.  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (traveller). 
1233.  The  writings  of  Maimonides  burnt  at  Paris. 
1242.  Copies  of  the  Talmud  burnt  at  Paris. 
1290.  Expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  England. 
1 3 10  ?.  Publication  of  the  Zohar. 
1340.  The   law-code   known   as    Turim   completed    by   R. 

Jacob  b.  Asher  {cf.  p.  137). 
1 43 7-1 509.  Don  Isaac  Abarbanel. 
1453.  Constantinople  falls  to  the  Turks. 
1455-1522.  Reuchlm. 
1475.  First  Hebrew  books  printed. 
1469-1589.  Elias  Levita. 


304  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1492.  The    Arabs   finally   driven   from    Spain  ;     expulsion 

of  the  Jews  from  Spain. 
1497.  Expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Portugal. 
1520-1523.  First    complete    edition    of    the     Babylonian 

Talmud    (in    twelve    vols,    folio)    printed    by    David 

Bomberg  at  Venice. 
1523-1524.  First  printed  edition  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud 

(in  one  volume)  issued  by  Bomberg  at  Venice. 
1 591.  Spanish  Jews  settle  in  Holland. 
1604-1657.  Manasseh  ben  Israel. 
1 626-1 676.  Sabbatai  Levi  (false  Messiah). 
1632-1677.  Baruch  Spinoza. 
1729.  Birth  of  Moses  Mendelssohn. 
1783.  Mendelssohn's  Jerusalem  published. 


APPENDIX 

Short  Titles  of  some  Important  Rabbinical  Authorities. 

MaHaRIL  =  R.  Jacob  b.  Moses  Molin  ha-Levi  of  Mayence 

(1365-1427)  ;    a  liturgical  authority  (see  JE  viii.  469). 
RABab   (I.)  =  Abraham  ibn  Daud  ha-Levi   (1110-1180)  ; 

cf.  p.  262  above  (Jewish  philosopher). 
RABaD    (II.)  =  Abraham   b.    Isaac   of   Narbonne    (iiio- 

1179)  ;    Talmudist  (see  JE  i.  inf.). 
RABaD  (III.)  =  Abraham  b.  David  of  Posquieres  (1125- 

1198)  ;   French  Talmudic  commentator  (see  JE  f.  103). 
RaLBaG  =  R.  Levi  ben  Gershon   ("  Gersonides  ")   (1288- 

1344)  ;  philosopher,  exegete,  etc.  {cf.  pp.  266/.  above). 
RaM  =  R.  Meir  ben  Samuel  (1060-1136)  ;  French  Tosaphist 

{cf.  JE  viii.  440). 
RaMBaM  =  R.  Moses  b.  Maimon  ("  Maimonides  ")  (1135- 

1204)  ;    see  pp.  222  ff.  above. 
RaMBaN  =  R.     Moses     b.     Nachman    ("  Nachmanides  ") 

(i  195-1270)  ;    exegete  (see  above,  p.  232). 
RaN  =  R.  Nissim  b.  Reuben  {c.   1 340-1 380)  ;    Talmudist 

and  philosopher,  teacher  of  Crescas  (see  JE  ix.  317). 
RaSHBa  =  R.  Shelomoh  b.  Abraham  Adret  (1235-1310)  ; 

famous  Spanish  Rabbi  (see  JE  i.  212  /.). 
RaSHBaM  =  R.  Samuel  ben  Meir  (son  of  RaM),  Rashi's 

grandson  (1100-1160)  ;    cf.  pp.  220  f.  above. 
RaSHBaZ  =  R.  Shimeon  (Simon)  b.  Zemach  Duran  (1361- 

1444)  ;    see  above,  p.  269. 
RaSHI  =  R.  Shelomoh  Yishaki  (1040-1105)  ;    see  above, 

p.  220. 
ReDaK  =  R.  David  Kimhi  (i  160-1235),  youngest  son  of 

Joseph  Kimhi  (RIKaM)  ;    see  above,  pp.  225  ff. 
ReMaK  =  R!  Moses  Kimhi  (died  about  1190),  elder  brother 

of  David  Kimhi. 
RJBaM  =  R.    Isaac   b.   Meir   (brother   of   RaSHBaM  and 

grandson  of  Rashi). 


306  APPENDIX 

RIBaSH  =  R.  Isaac  b.  Sheshet,  famous  for  his  responsa, 
contemporary  of  Crescas  (1340-14 lo). 

RiF  =  R.  Isaac  Alfasi  (1013-1103)  ;  author  of  a  com- 
pendium of  the  Talmud  (see  above,  p.  136). 

RIKaM  =  R.  Joseph  b.  Isaac  Kimhi  (1105-1170)  ;  see 
above,  pp.  224  /. 


ADDENDA. 

p.  66.  A  German  translation  of  the  entire  Midrash  Rabbah 
(Pentateuch  and  Megilloth)  was  published  in  ten 
parts  by  Dr.  A.  Wiinsche  under  the  title  Bibliotheca 
Rahbinica  (Leipzig,  1880-85). 

P.  68  (footnote)  ; 

P.  72  (Deuteronomy).  Further  Tannaitic  Midrashic 
material  which  exists  in  a  scattered  form  in  the 
Midrash  ha-gadol  (see  p.  80)  has  been  collected  and 
published  by  Dr.  D.  Hoffmann  in  the  following  : 
Mechilta  de-Rabbi  Simon  b.  Jochai  (to  Exodus)  (1905), 
and  Midrasch  Tannaim  (to  Deuteronomy)  (Heft  I. 
[Berlin],  1908  ;    Heft  II.,  1909) — all  very  important. 

A  valuable  translation  in  German  of  the  important 
Midrash  Mekilta  by  Winter  and  Wiinsche  was  pub- 
lished in  Leipzig  in  igog{  Mechilta :  ein  tannaiiischer 
Midrasch  zu  Exodus).  It  contains  some  important 
appendices  and  notes. 

P.  70.  The  best  edition  of  Sifra  (on  Leviticus)  is  that  of 
I.  H.  Weiss  (Hebrew  text,  with  notes  ;  Vienna,  1862). 
The  best  edition  of  Sifre  (on  Numbers  V.  to  end  and 
the  whole  of  Deuteronomy)  is  that  of  M.  Friedmann 
(Vienna,  1864).  It  contains  the  Hebrew  text,  with 
introduction  and  notes  (in  Hebrew). 

A  Latin  translation  of  Mekilta,  Sifra,  and  Sijre  is 
given  (with  the  Hebrew  text)  in  Ugolini's  Thesaurus, 
vols.  xiv.  and  xv.  (Vienna,  1752). 

P.  72.  A  German  translation  of  the  Midrash  on  the  Psalms 
by  Dr.  A.  Wiinsche  was  published  in  2  vols.      Trier 

(1892-93). 

P.  78.  Midrash  Tanchuma.  A  critical  edition  of  this 
Midrash,  based  upon  several  MSS.  and  edited  by 
Buber,  was  published  in  3  vols,  at  Wilna  in  1885. 
No  translation  has  yet  appeared. 

P.  79.  The  following  parts  of  the  Yalkut  ha-Machiri  have 
been  published.  On  the  Psalms  (ed.  by  Buber,  1899 
[Berdychev]),  on  Isaiah  (ed.  by  Spira  ;  Berlin,  1894), 
on  Proverbs  (ed.  by  Grimhut,  1902),  on  Hosea  and 
Zechariah  (ed.  by  Greenup,  1909  and  19 10). 

307  X  2 


3o8  ADDENDA 

P.  79.  Yalkut  Shimeoni.  The  editio  princeps  is  that  of 
Salonica  (1526-27 ;  152a)  ;  a  recent  edition  was 
pubUshed  at  Warsaw  (1876-77).  A  translation  of  the 
Yalkut  on  Zechariah  by  E.  G.  King  was  published 
at  Cambridge  in  1882. 

P.  98.  Add  the  following  English  translations  which  have 
recently  appeared  :  Of  Pirke  Aboth  (English  transla- 
tion and  notes),  by  R.  Travers  Herford,  in  Charles's 
Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha,  vol.  ii.  ;  and  by 
W.  O.  E.  Oesterley  (S.P.C.K.,  1919)  ;  of  Sanhedrin 
(Mishnah  and  Tosephta)by  H.  Danby  (S.P.C.K.  1919); 
and  of  Berakoth  (Mishnah  and  Tosephta),  by  A.  Lukyn 
Williams  (S.P.C.K.,  1920). 

P.  114.  To  the  literature  on  the  Talmud  the  following 
may  be  added  :  Berakoth  (text,  German  translation 
and  notes),  by  E.  M.  Pinner  (very  helpful  to  students), 
I  vol.  folio  (Berlin,  1842)  ;  and  (to  the  lexicographical 
aids)  G.  Dalman,  Aramdische-Nenhehrdisches  Worterbuch 
zum  Targum,  Talmud,  und  Midrasch  (Frankfort  a/M., 
1901)  ;  J,  Levy,  Neuhebrdisches  und  Chalddisches 
Worterbuch  iiber  die  Talmudim  und  Midraschim, 
4  vols.  (Leipzig,  1876-83)  ;  also  by  the  same  editor, 
Chalddisches  Worterbuch  iiber  die  Targumim  und  einen 
grossen  Theil  des  Rabbinischen  Schrijtthums,  2  vols. 
(Leipzig,  i88t). 

P.  220.  Rashi's  Pentateuch  Commentary.  The  best  edition 
is  that  of  Berliner  (Berlin,  1866)  ;  a  German  transla- 
tion with  accompanying  text  of  Scripture,  by  Jul, 
Dessauer,  appeared  in  1887. 

P.  222.  The  commentary  of  Ibn  Ezra  on  Isaiah  has  been 
edited  (Heb.  text,  with  glossary  and  notes)  by  M. 
Friedlander  (1877),  who  published  an  English  transla- 
tion of  the  same  work  in  1873. 

P.  270.  A  Hebrew  (metrical)  translation  of  The  Choice  of 
Pearls  {cf.  p.  259) — which  is  a  collection  of  ethical 
maxims — made  by  Joseph  Kimhi  and  entitled  Shekel 
ha-Kodesh  {"  The  Holy  Shekel "")  has  recently  been 
printed  and  published  for  the  first  time,  with  English 
translation  and  introduction  (Dr.  Hermann  Gollancz  ; 
Oxford  Press,  1919).  In  the  same  volume  is  included 
an  edition  of  the  text  (with  English  translation  and 
notes)  of  the  treatise  Yesod  Hayirah  ("  The  Foundation 
of  Religious  Fear  "). 

P.  271.  Ethical  wills.  A  collection  of  these  documents 
has  been  edited  by  Dr.  Israel  Abrahams,  and  is  now 
in  the  press  (1920  :    Columbia  University  Press). 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Aaron  ben  Elijah,  268 

Aaron   ben   Samuel   ha-Nasi, 

240 
'Ab  beth  din,  93 
Ab,    ninth   of,    77,    274,    276, 

285 
Abarbanel,  229/.,  23.:},  270 
Abaye,  123/. 
Abba  Arika,  119 

Hoshaya,  R.,  66 

Mari,  229 

Shaul,  106 

Abbahu,  120,  121 
Abd  al-Rachman,  30 
Abinu  Malkenu,  199 
Abina,  Rab,  126 
Abitur,  Joseph,  289 
Aboab,  Isaac,  270 
'Abodah,  175,  277 

,  hymn,  281 

'Aboih  de  Rabbi  Nathan,  97 
Abraham,  67,  75 

,  Apocalypse  oj,   237 

bar  Chiyya,   261 

Bedaresi,  289 

ben  David,  242 

ben    Nathan    ha-Jarchi, 

150 

Bihago,  269 

de  Porta  Leone,  295 

Farissol,  293 

ibn  Daud,  262,  279,  294 

ibn  Ezra,  218,  282 

— —  Judaeus,  261 


Abraham  the  patriarch,  257 

Zachuto,  295 

'Abtalyon,  93 

Abn  Harun  Musa,  281 

Abudraham,    David,    150 

Abulafia.   Abraham,   246 

Abulwalid,  218,  263 

Abuya,  Elisha  ben,  95 

-",  the  Faust  of  the  Talmud, 

95 
Academies,   Babylonian,    83 

of  Palestine,  23 

Academy  of  Jabne,  20 

Achai,  211 

Acher,  name  for  Abuya,  95 

Acrostic,   alphabetic,    273 

Adam,  the  first,  71 

'Adon  'Olam,  35,  155,  157,  194 

Adra,  30 

Adret,  Solomon  ben,   264 

iElia  Capitolina,   21 

^sop-cycle,  291 

Agape,  the,  142 

'Aggada,  89 

'Aggadath  Bereshith,  68 

Chazitha,  75 

'Ahabah,  156,   163,  274 

"  Aims  of  Philosophers,  The," 

260 
'Akedah,  The,   156,   160,   273 
'Akedath  Yitzhak,  -z-zg 
Akiba,    R.,    21,    66,    69,    70, 

95,    HI,    213 

,  "  Alphabet  of  R.,"  240 

and  the  Mishnah,  95 

,  school  of,   214 


312 


INDEX 


Akiba,  R.,  story  of,  184 
Al-Chakim,   so 
Al-Charizi,   281,   287 
'Al  cut,    199 
Al-Ghazali,  260/. 
Alkabiz,  Solomon,  252,  289 
Al-Khazari,   283 
Al-Kirkisani,  257 
Al-Nasir,  30 
Al-Shefa,  258 
Albalia,    Barucb,    283 
Albertus  Magnus,  265 
Albo,   Joseph,   268  j^. 
'Alenu,  120,  194,  195 
Alexander  Jannseus,  14 

the  Great,  6 

Alexandra   (Salome),    14 
Alexandria,   237 

,  synagogue  in,   174 

Alexandrine  allegorising,  35 

war,   T7 

Alfasi,  Isaac,  284 
Alfonso  v.,  32 

VI.,  28s 

Alkabetz,  190 
"  All  vows,"  200 
Allegory,    219,    223    . 
Almohades,   31 
Almoravides,  31 
"Alphabet  of  R.  Akiba,  The," 

240 
Alphabetic  acrostic,  273 
Alphabetical  confessions,  199 
Alsheik,   Moses,   234 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  257 
Amasis,  4 
Amemar  II.,  125 
A  men,  174 
'Amidah,    173,    274 
Ammi,   120 

Amora  ("  speaker  "),   23 
Amoraim,  19,  83 
period  of  the,  22/.,  113, 

it6/.,   210 
Amram,  150,  211 
'Anak,  281 
Anan,   215 


Ananites,   26/. 

Angels,   71 

Anthropomorphic  language, 
216 

Anthropomorphisms  avoided 
in  the  Targums,  47  /. 

Antigonus  of  Soko,  92 

Antiochus   III.,   6 

Epiphanes,  1 1 

Antipas,  18 

Antipater,  15 

,  procurator  ot  Judaea,  17 

Apocalypse,  the,   146 

of  Abraham,  the,  237 

Apocryphal  and  Pseudepi- 
graphical  literature,  Mid- 
rashic    elements    in,    63 

Apology  for  Judaism,  261 

Aqaila,  95 

Aquinas,   222,   265 

Arab  fanaticism,    224 

philosophy,   255/. 

Arabia,  primaeval  home  of 
the  Semites,  39 

Arabian  geographers,  293 

Arabic  culture,   28 

influence     on     Spanish 

school  of  Jewish  poets, 
288 

,  language    of    the   Jews 

in  Oriental  lands,  46 

translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures,  216,   256 

Arabs  of  Spain,  Jews  under 
the,  30 

Aram,  39 

Aram-naharaim,  40 

Aramaean  kingdom  con- 
quered by  Assyria,  41 

language  spoken  by  the 

Israelites,    42 

,  influence  of  the,  41 

spoken      all      over 


Palestine,   41 
—  race     never 


formed     a 


political  unity,  41 
Aramaeans,  39/. 


INDEX 


313 


Aramaic  as  a  literary  lan- 
guage. 42 

,  Eastern,  85 

in  the  Midrashic  litera- 
ture, 42 

in  the  O.T.,  42 

,  Targnms  written  in,  39 

,  three   main   dialects  of, 


42 

,  Western,  85 

'Arbith,  274 

Archelaus,    181 

Aretas,  Arab  prince,  15 

Arika,  R.,  22,  70 

Aristobulus  I.,  i^ff. 

Aristotle,  255,  265,  267 

Aristotelian      doctrines,      re- 
action against,   260 

philosophy,  263,  268 

physics,  223 

system    of     philosophy. 


222 


v/orld-views,   35 


Aristotelianism,  262 
Ark,  the  opening  of  the,  156 
Artaxerxes   III.    (Ochus),   5 
"  Articles  of  Faith  and  Philo- 
sophic   Dogmas,"    28 
Ascent,   the  fifteen  Songs  of, 

195 

Ascetic  mode  of  life,  253 

'Ashamnu,  199 

Asher  ben  Jechiel,  R.,  136, 
271 

Asheri,  compendium  of,   84 

Ashi,  R.,  124/.,  210 

,  his  work,  23 

Ashkenazic  Rite,  145,  150 

Ashurith   (Syrian),   43 

Asiyyatic  world,   the,   250 

Assemblies  for  prayer  on  fast- 
days,  152  j7. 

Assi,  120 

Assyria,  40 

Assyrian  empire,  end  of  the 

.  ancient,   40 

kings,  41 


Atonement,     Song    of,     179, 

198^.,  273,  277 
Augustine,  230 
Averroes,  263/.,  266/.,  269 
Averroism,  golden  age  of,  264 
Avicenna,    258/.,    262 
Azariah  di  Rossi,  295 
'Azharoih,  277,  281 
Azilutic  world,  the,  249 
Azriel,  242,  243  j^^.,  252 
Azzai,   Simon  ben,  95 

B 

Ba'ale    ha-Kahhalah,    235 

Babli,  Talmud,   82 

Babylon,  4 

Babylonia,  70,  73 

the  centre  of   Judaism, 

21/. 
Babylonian  Academies,  83 

Exile,  7#,   153 

liturgical   use,    145 

Rite,  the,  150 

Talmud,  the,   23  /.,   82, 

210 


complete     manu- 
script of,  83 

tractates,    12^  ff. 


Targum,  51 

Bachya,   270 

ben  Asher,  234,  244/. 

ibn  Pakuda,  259/.,   289 

Badge,  yellow,  31 

Bagoses,  6 

Bahir,  243 

Bar-Cochba   revolt,    21,    95 

Baraitha,   89,   107,   m  ff. 

collections,    113 

Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  291 
Baruch,  276 

Albalia,    283 

sheamar,  155,  161 

"  Battles  of  the  Lord,  The," 

266 
Bechinath    ha-Dath,    269 
'Olam,  264 


314 


INDEX 


"  Beginning  of  the  Wisdom, 

The,"   271 
BeHef  in  One  God,  162 
Bemidbar  Rabhah,  jif. 
Ben  Azzai,  70 

Ben  ha-melek  we-ha-Nazir,  290 
Ben  Mishh,  279 
Ben  Sira,  92 

,  the  Wisdom  of,   164/. 

Ben   Tehillim,   279 

Ben  Zoma,  95 

Benediction,  146 

over    bread    and    wine, 

188 
Benedictions,  a  hundred,  148/. 

,  the  Morning,  157 

Beni  Mikra,  26 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  293 
Berachya  ha-Nakdan,  291 
Berakhah,    term    for    prayer, 

146 

wide  connotation  of,  146 

Bereshith    Rabbah,    65  ff.,  74, 

76,  77 

,  extracts    from,  67 

Beriatic  world,  the,  249 
Beth  ha-Midrash,  20 

Hillel,  93 

Shammai,   93 

She'arim,    22,    97 

Bible,  divine  authority  of,  216 
Biblical  Antiquities  of  Pseudo- 

Philo,  112 
miracles,       rationalistic 

explanations  of,  218 

phrases  incorporated  in 


the  synagogue  prayers,  145 
text,  preservation  of,  215 


Bihago,  Abraham,  269 
Birkath  Cohanim,   173 
Blessing   of  the   Priests,    173 
"  Branch  of  David,  The,"  295 
Bread  and  wine.  Benediction 

over,  188 
Bride  of  the  Sabbath,  the,  290 
"  BriUiancy  "        (KabbaUstic 

work),  243 


"  Book  of  Argument  and 
Demonstration  in  Aid  of  the 
Despised   Faith,  The,"  261 

■  of  Creation,  The,"  235, 

238  # 
of  Creeds  and  Doctrines, 

The,"  256 

of  Delight,  The,"  292 

of  Form,  The,"  245 

of  Genealogies,"  a,  295 

of    Lights    and     Light- 


houses, The,"   257 

—  of  Principles,  The,"  269 

—  of  Revelation  of  the 
Method  of  Proof  touching 
the  Principles  of  ReUgion, 
The,"  263 

of    Roots,    The,"    218, 


226 

of  the  Pious,  The,"  270 

of  the  Righteous,  The," 

246 

of  Tradition,  The,"  294 

Buddha,  291 

"  Bundle  of  Hfe,"  the,   205 

Burial  Service,  the,  101  ff. 


Csesarea,  117,  120 

Caesar's  treatment  of  the 
Jews,    16/. 

Cambridge,  Genizah  frag- 
ments in,  211 

"  Canon,"  the,  258 

Capua,    John   of,    291 

Caro,  Joseph,  288 

Caspi,    Joseph,    264 

Casuistical   discussion,    228 

Catechumenorum,  Missa,  143 

Catholic  Church,  the,  147 

Ceremonial  in  the  Tannaitic 
period,    152 

"  Ceremonies  and  Customs  of 
the  Jews,"  295 

Circumcision,   9 

Clement  of  Rome,  142 


INDEX 


315 


Chabib,  Jacob  ibn,  271 

"  Chain   of  Tradition,   The," 

295 
Chaldee,   41 
Chanina,  R.,  67,   117 
Chanukkah,    12,    198 
Chariot,  the  Divine,  237 

,  the  Heavenly,  223 

vision,   Ezekiel's,   237 

Chasdai,  Abraham  ibn,  290/. 
ben   Abraham   Crescas, 

268 

ibn  Shaprut,  278 

Chasid,  Judah,  270 
Chassidim,  12 
Chassidism,    253 
Chayim,  Jacob  ben,  234 

,  Rabbinical  Bible  of,  227 

Vital,  252 

Cheber,   13 

Chief  elements  of  synagogue 

worship,    153 
Chisda,   R.,    121 
Chiyya  bar- Abba,   120 
Choboth   ha-Lebaboth   260 
"  Choice  of  Pearls,  The,"  33, 

259 
Christian  Church,  liturgies  of 

the,  150 

origins,    141 

rulers    in    Spain,     Jews 

under,  31 

scholarship,  mediaeval,  33 


Christians,  178,  179 

,  controversy    with,    117, 

118,     120 
Chronicle  of  A chimaar,  the,  294 
Chronicles,  Midrash  on,  74 
,  Kimhi's  commentary  on, 


226 


of  Jerahmeel,   296 


Church  Order,  the  primitive, 

142 
,  worship    of    the    early, 

influenced    by   the    Jewish 

Liturgy,  142 
"  Commentaries,  Middle,"  263 


Commandments,  the  Ten,  154 

Communal  life  broken  by  the 
Exile,    7 

Communion  Office,   176 

Confession,   153 

of  sin,    199 

Confessions,  alphabetical,  199 

"  Confutation  of  the  Con- 
futation, A,"  263 

Congregation,  the,  regarded 
as  an  integral  part  of  the 
nation,    147 

Congregational  worship,  be- 
ginnings   of,    1 1 

Constantinople  mentioned  in 
the  Palestinian  Targum,  53 

Contrasts,  existence  of  things 
by,  239 

Copernicus,  248 

Cordova,  30,  31 

Corinthians,  Clement  of 
Rome's  epistle  to,  142 

Courses  of  priests  and  Levites, 

147 
Creatio  ex  nihilo,  265 
Creation,  Maimonides  on  the, 

223 
Creed  of  Maimonides,  288 
Croesus,  4 
Crusades,  the,  221 
Cushan-rishathaim,  40 
Cyrus  II.,  4 

cylinder,  5 

,  his  broad-mindedness,  5 


D 

Daily   worship   of   the   syna- 
gogue, origin  of,  153 
Damascus,  15,  40 
Daniel,  commentary  on,  231 
Dante,  287 
DarasJi,  57,  214/. 
Darshan,  58 
Darshanim,  219 
Daud,  Abraham  ibn,  279 
David  Abudraham,  150 


3i6 


INDEX 


David  ben  Todros,  263 

Gans,  295 

Day  of  Atonement,  the,  179, 

198^.,  273,  277 
Deharim  Rabbah,  72 

,  quotation  from,  72 

Decalogue,  the,  159/. 
Dedication,  feast  of,  198 

(festival  of)  instituted,  12 

Departed,    prayers    for    the, 

201^. 

,  the,  201  /. 

Derash,  250 

Deuteronomy,     Midrash    on, 

71/- 
Development  of  belief,  8/. 
Devotional     preparation     for 

service,  156 
Diary  of  Eldad  the  Danite,  the, 

292 
Diaspora,  210 
Dibbura,  48 
Didachd,  the,  142 
,  prayers  of  the,  Jewish 

in  character,  142 
Diocletian,  120 

,  story  of  the  emperor,  65 

Dispersion,  new  phase  of  the, 

19 
Divan,  the,  282,  287,  288 
Divine    Chariot    or   Throne, 

mysteries  of,  237 

Comedy,  the,  287 

Dunash  ben  Labrat,  217,  278 

•  ibn  Tamim,  217 

Duran,  Profiat,  268 

,  Simon,  263 

,  Simon  ben  Zemach,  269 

"  Duties  of  the  Heart,  The," 

260,  268,  270 


Ecclesiastes,  Midrash  on,  75 
Ecclesiasticus,  124 
"  Eighteen        Benedictions," 
the,  146 


Ekah  Rabbati,  76/. 

Eldad  the  Danite,  the  Diary 

of,  292 
Eleazar  ben  Arak,  95 

ben  Judah,  289 

ben  Kalir,  272 

— —  ben  Pedath,  118 

ben  Shammua,  96 

of  Modin,  69 

of  Worms,  241,  246,  270 

Elements,  primal,  239 
Eliezer,  R.,  96,  213 

,  R.,  Barditha  of,  74 

ben  'Azarya,  95 

ben  Hyrkanos,  94,  214 

ben  Jacob  I.,  R.,  95 

ben  Joel,  289 

ben  Nathan,  289 

of  Beaugency,  231 

Elijah  ben  Judah  of  Worms, 

233 

del  Medigo,  269 

Emanations,  doctrine  of,  239/. 

Emperors,  persecuting  policy 
of,  121 

Emunoth  we-Deoth,  28 

'En  Ja'akob,  138,  271 

'En  Kelohenu,  194 

En-Soph,  244,  250 

"  Encyclopaedia  of  Philo- 
sophy," 264 

Endless  One,  the,  244 

Ephraim  ben  Isaac,  289 

ben  Jacob,  289 

Epicureanism,  75 

Epiphanius,  179 

Esther,  Midrash  on,  77 

Esthori  Parchi,  293 

Ethics,   254  j^'^. 

in  the  Kabbalah,  250 

Eucharist,  Sunday,  142 

Evil,  problem  of,  245/. 

*'  Examination  of  the  World," 
264 

Exegesis,  212 

of  Scripture,  2,12  ff. 

,  principles  of,  216/. 


INDEX 


317 


Exegesis,  school  of,  founded 
by  Akiba,  213 

,  schools  of,  in  opposi- 
tion, 214 

Exegetical  rules  of  Hillel,  94 

Exilarch,  22,  210 

Exile,  Babylonian,  the,  7,  8  J. 

,  the,  41,  148 

,  worship  during  the,  153 

Exodus,  Midrash  on,  68/. 

,  the,  276 

Expulsion  of  Jews  from  Spain, 
32,  230 

"  External  books,"  the,  11 1 

Ezekiel's  vision,  274 

Ezra  the  Scribe,  5,  90,  95 

,  Midrash  on,  74 

,  Moses  ibn,  281 

Nehemiah,  commentary 

on,  225 

and  Nehemiah,  effect  of 


their  work,  19 


Fables  of  Bidpai,  291 
Fanaticism,  Arab,  224 
Farissol,  Abraham,  293 

,  Solomon  ibn,  284 

Fast-days,  152,  198/. 

Faust  of  the  Talmud,  Abuya 

the,  95 
Feast  of  Dedication,  198 

Lots,  198 

Pentecost,  196 

Tabernacles,  196 

Weeks,  197 

Ferdinand  III.,  31 

and  Isabella,  32,  229 

Festival  Services,  the,  196  ff. 
Folk-lore,  89 

tales,  290/. 

Fo7is  VitcB,  259 
Formalism,  Rabbinical,  253 
"  Fount  of  Life,"  the,  259 
'*'  Fountain  of  Life,"  the,  33 


Four  worlds,  the  doctrine  of, 

249 
Fox  Fables,  291 
Fragment  Targum,  the,  54 
Frankfort,  79 
Free-will,  human,  263 
French  Rite,  the,  150 


Gabinius,  16 

Galeed,  41 

Gamaliel  I.,  44 

II.,  94,  173,  178 

Gan  'Eden,  240 

Gaon,  25,  83,  209 

"  Garden  of  Eden,"  240 

,  The,"  252,  262 

"  Gate  of  Secrets,"  The,  246 

Gebirol,  Solomon  ibn,  279/. 

Gedaliah  ibn  Jachya,  295 

"  Gehinnom,"  240 

Gemara,  85 

Gematria,  233,  278,  282 

Genesis,  Kimhi's  commentary 
on,  226 

,  Midrash  on,  65  j/. 

Genizah  fragments,  211 

Gans,  David,  295 

Geography-books,  293 

,  Jewish  knowledge  of,  in 

the  Middle  Ages,  292/. 

Geonic  period,  the,  'z^ff.,  210 

■ ,  importance  of,  210 

,  Kabbalistic  litera- 
ture in  the,  240 

,  literature  of,  236 

,  mystical        litera- 


ture in  the,  238 
Geonim,  direct   successors  of 

the  Amor  aim  and  Saboraim, 

25,  209^. 
German  Rite,  the,  150 
Germany,  Jews  in,  36 
Gershon,  229,  266  jf. 

of  Judah,  289 

Gersonides,  264,  266/. 


3i8 


INDEX 


Gersonides,  reaction  against, 
267/. 

Geullah,  156,  163,  274 

Gezeroth,  89 

Ghayyat,  Isaac,  289 

Ghettos,  36 

Gnostic  systems  of  thought, 
238 

Gnosticism,  ancient,  237 

Gnostics,  178 

God,  doctrine  of,  in  the  Tar- 
gums,  46^. 

"  Golden  Age  "  of  Jewish 
Hterature,  36 

of  modern  Jews,  29 

Grace,  petitions  for,  'i.jgff. 

Grseco-Arabic  philosophy,  re- 
action of,  on  Kabbahstic 
hterature,  241 

Grammatical  study,   224 

Great  Synagogue,  the,  91 

Greece,  philosophy  of,  in 
Middle  Ages,  33 

Greek  ascendancy  recognised 
by  the  Jews,  6 

philosophical    thought, 

words  in  Midrash,  66 

words  in  the  Mishnah, 

106 

"  Guide  to  the  Perplexed, 
The,"  35,  264/.,  288 


H 

Hahdalah,  the,  195/. 

Hadrian,  21 

,    emperor,    story    of,   in 

Midrash  Tehillim,  73 
Haggadah,  60  ff.,  88/.,  213  j^. 

■ ,  expounder  of,  62 

in  the  Baraitha,  112 

Megillah,  77 

Haggadic  exegesis  and  prim- 

ar}^  sense  of  Scripture,  215 

■ literature,  63 

Haggai,  R.,  122 


Hagiographa,  Targums  to  the, 

55/- 
Hai,    209,   211,  217,  238 
Halakah,  60 ff.,  85,  88/.,  213  ff. 

in  the  Baraitha,  112 

"  Hall  of  hewn  stone,"  153 
Hamnuna  the  elder,  248 
Haphtarah,  192/. 
Harha  de  Mosheh,  240 
Hariri  of  Bozrah,  286 
Hasdai  ben  Isaac,  31 

ibn  Shaprut,  217 

Hashcahah  prayer,  the,  205 

Hasmon,  12 

Hasmonaean  dynasty,  end  of, 

17 

rule,  beginning  of,  13 

Ha-Tophet  we-ha-Eden,  287 

Ha-Tenini,  289 

Hauran,  the,  40 

Hayyuj,  224 

Heads  of  families,  8 

"  Healing  of  the  Soul,"  the, 

258 
Heavenly  Chariot,  the,  223 
Heber  the  Kenite,  286 
Hebrew    alphabet,     mystical 

power  of  the  letters  of  the, 

239 

and  Arabic,  comparative 

study  of,  217 

Bible,  interpretation  of 

the,  216 

Josephus,  the,  294 

language   displaced    by 

Aramaic,  42 

lexicography,  217 

literature      under 


the 

Arabs,  30 
,  New,  Mishnah  written 

in,  106 

philology,  217 

Hebrews,  epistle  to  the,  146 
Hecyon  ha-nephesh,  262 
Helakoth,  240 

"  Helakoth  "  literature,  238 
Hell  and  Paradise,  287 


INDEX 


319 


Hellenistic   influence    on   the 

Jews,  7 

party  among  the  Jews,  1 1 

Heretics,  170 
Hermeneutic  rules,  213 
Herod,     beautifying     of    the 

Temple  by,  18 

,  death  of,  18 

,  religious  peace  under,  1 7 

Herodotus,  39 
Hibhut  ha-Keher,  240 
Hidden  wisdom,  235 
Hillel,  93,  204 

,  exegetical  rules  of,  94 

,  rules  of,  interpretation 

of,  95 

,  school  of,  94 

the  elder,  213 


Hindu  philosophy,  248 
Historical  episodes  referred  to 

in  the  Liturgy  selicoth,  295 

works,  mediaeval,  290  /. 

History-books,  294/. 

Hittites,  the,  40 

Hohhmah,  243 

Holland,  Jews  in,  36 

Holy   City,    commemorations 

01  the  destructions  of,  276 
Hoshaiah,  R.,  117 
Hosha'na  rabba,  277 
Hosha'arioth,  277 
Huna  Rab,  120,  123,  210 
"  Hundred         Benedictions," 

Prayer-books   compiled   on 

the  principle  of,  149 
Hymn  for  Unity,  194 

of  Glory,  the,  156,  194 

Hyrcania,  5 
Hyrkanos  II.,  16 

,  ethnarch  of  Judaea,  17 

,  murder  of,  17 


Ibn  Adret,  244 

Ibn  Aknin,  Joseph  ben  Judah, 

265' 


Ibn  Cappi,  Joseph,  266 
Ibn  Daud,  Abraham,  262 
Ibn    Ezra,    196,    219,    220/., 

224,  228 
Ibn  Ezra,  Abraham,  34,  273, 

282 
Ibn  Ezra,  Moses,  273,  283,  284 
Ibn    Gabirol,    33,    219,    241, 

259,  262,  273 
Ibn  Ganah,  224 
Ibn  Jachya,  Gedaliah,  295 
Ibn  Labrat,  278 
Ibn  Nagdela,  Samuel,  279 
Ibn  Shaprut,  Chasdai,  278 
Ibn  Sina,  258,  262 
Ibn  Tibbon,  R.,  222,  260,  271 
Ibri  (Hebrew),  43 
'Idra  rabba,  248,  250 

zuba,  248,  250 

Idumaea,  15 

'Iggereth        ha-Hithnatzeluth, 

264 

'Orchoth  'dlam,  293 

'Ikkarim,  269 

Immanuel  ben  Solomon  ben 

Jekuthiel,  287 

of  Rome,  287 

"  Improvement      of       Moral 

Qualities,  The,"  259 
Innocent  IV.,  bull  of,  31 
Interpretation      of      Hebrew 

Bible,  216 

■  of  Scripture,  213 

"  Investigation    of    Religion, 

The,"  269 
Isaac,  67 

Alfasi,  R.,  136 

ben  Reuben,  289 

Ghayyat,  289 

ibn  Albalia,  276 

Israeli,  259 

the  Blind,  242,  243 

Ishmael  ben  Elisha,  R.,  95 

,  R.,  69,  213,  214 

Islam,  rise  of,  46 
Israel  Najara,  290 
Italy,  Jews  in,  36 


320 


INDEX 


Itinera  Mundi,  293 
Itinerary     of     Benjamin     of 
Tudela,  293 


Jabne,  Academy  of,  20 

Jacob,  R.,  157 

ben  Cha3dm,  234 

ha-Nazir,  242  . 

ibn  Chahib,  R.,  138,  271 

James  I.,  king  of  Aragon,  31 

Jamnia,  94 

Jannaeus,  Alexander,  14 

Jannai,  272 

Jechiel,  Asher  ben,  271 

Jeda'aya,  289 

Jedayah  Penini,  264 

Jegar-sahadutha,  41 

Jehuda  ben  Ilai,  R.,  96 

ben  Tabbai,  93 

ha-Nasi,  44,  66 

Jehudai  ben  Nachman,  26 

Jekuthiel  ben  Moses,  R.,  275, 
289 

Jerahmeel,  Chronicles  of,  296 

Jeremiah  bar  Abba,  R.,  121  /. 

Jericho,  15 

attacked  by  Persians,  5 

Jerome,  230 

Jerusalem  after  the  destruc- 
tion, 21 

besieged  by  Pompey,  16 

,  fall  of,  18 

Talmud,  the,  78 

Jerushalmi,  Talmud,  82 

Jewish  communities  in  the 
East,  20 

daily  services,  regu- 
larity of,  143 

Liturgy,  the,  1^1  ff. 

massacres  in  Spain,  32 

mysticism,  240 

philosophers,  270 

physicians  in  the  Middle 


Jewish  property  possessed  by 

the  Emperors,  36 

science,  30/. 

theology,  255 

Jews,     deputations     of,     to 

Pompey,  15 

expelled  from  England, 


36 


expelled  from  Spain,  32, 
230 
— ,  golden  age  of,  in  Spain, 


29 


in  Germany,  the,  36 

Holland,  36 

Italy,  36 

Persia,  248/. 

Poland,  35,  253 

Spain,  29  j^'^. 

-,  ubiquity  of,  19 

-  under  Arabs  in  Spain,  30 

Christians  in  Spain, 


30 


Mohammedanism . 


25/. 


Moors,  30 
well  treated   by  Caesar, 


17 


Ages,  31 


Job,  Midrash  on,  74 

,  Targum  of  the  book  of, 

44 
Jochanan  ben  Nappacha,  23, 

117 

ben  Zakkai,  6,  20,  69,  94 

of  Jerusalem,  93 

Joel,  R.,  291 

John  of  Capua,  291 

Hyrkanos,  13/. 

Jonah,  R.,  122 

Hebrew  philologist, 

218 

,  Midrash  on,  74 

Jonathan,  R.,  95 

ben  Uzziel,  Targum  of, 

54/- 

•  the  Maccabaean,  13 

Joppa,  17 
Jose,  R,,  213 


INDEX 


321 


Jose  II.,  R.,  122 

bar  Kisri,  R.,  67 

ben  Chalaphta,  R.,  96 

ben  Jose,  272 

ben  Joezer  of  Zereda,  93 

of  Galilee,  R.,  95 

the  Priest,  94 

Joseph  Abitur,  289 

ben  Chiyyah,  113 

ibn  Aknin,  229 

ibn  Zaddik,  262 

Karo,  221,  288 

Zabara,  292 

Josephus,  5,  14,  200 

,  Midrashic  elements  in, 

63 
Joshua  ben  Chananya,  94 


Judaism,  Apology  for,  261 

,  mediaeval,  212 

,  Oriental,  96 

,  philosophic,  28 

,  Rabbinical,  256 

,  systematic  treatment  on 

a    philosophic    foundation, 

256 
Judas  the  Maccabaean,  12 

,  death  of,  13 

Julian,  the  Emperor,  66 
Justin  Martyr,  142,  147,  178 


K 


ben  Levi,  118 

Kabbalah,  the,  87,   131,  228, 

ben  Perachya,  93 

235  ff- 

the  high-priest,  6 

,  judgements  upon,  253/. 

Josiah,  R.,  95 

,   mythological   elements 

Josippon,  Sepher,  294 

in,  237 

Jubilees,  Book  of,  H2 

,  speculative  element  in. 

Judaea  after  the  fall  of  Jeru- 

237 

salem,  16 

,   teaching    on    love    in, 

,  independence  of,  13 

250 

Judaean- Arabic  science,  224 

Kabbalistic  doctrine  of  Nach- 

Judah  I.,  R.,  82,  85,  88,  94, 

manides,  232 

96/.,  106,  117,  119 

literature  in  the  Geonic 

,  champion  of  literal 

period,  240 

exegesis,  95 

opposed    to    the 

,  his  compilation  of 

Talmud,  236 

the  Mishnah,  107 

reacted    upon    by 

ben  Bileam,  289 

Graeco-Arabic     philosophy. 

ben  David  Hayyuj,  218 

241 

ben  Ezekiel,  121,  123 

movement,  the,  229 

ben  Solomon  ben  Hophni, 

tradition,  the,  236,  237/. 

286 

Kabbalists,  German  school  of, 

Chasid,  270 

241/. 

ha-Levi,    34,    254,    255, 

Kahod,  241 

261,  272,  276,  279,  281,  283, 

Kaddish,  156,  162,  183  j^^.,  194, 

284,  286 

195 

ibn  Balaam  of  Toledo, 

,  miraculous  efficacv  of, 

218 

184 

ibn  Koreish,  217 

,  Rabbinical,  186 

the  BUnd,  26 

,  Mourners',   183/.,   194, 

the  Pious,  241 

I95>  203 

322 


INDEX 


Kaddish  of  Renewal,    183  /., 

186,  203 

tithkabal,  183 

Kadmuth  ha-' Slam,  233 
Kahana,  Rab,  125 
Kairwan,  83,  217 
Kalam,  255,  256,  257,  265 
Kalila  we-Dimna,  291 
Kalir,  278,  289 
Kallah,  26 
Kalonymides,  241 
Kalonymus  ben  Judah,  289 

ben  Kalonymus,  263 

,  Meshullam,  ben,  289 

,  Moses  ben,  289 

Kaphtor  wa-Pherach,  293 

Karaism,  210 

Karaite     sect,    existence    of, 

to-day,  27 

movement,  26,  28,  131 

Karaites,  the,  215/.,  256,  261, 

*  294 

Karo,  Joseph,  137,  221,  252 
Kedushah,    156,    168,    177  j^., 

192,  193,  194,  275 
Kehmmath  ha-Goyim,  269 
Kemah,  225 
Keriath  ha-Torah,  155 
Keroboth,  274 
Kether  Malkuth  (Ibn  Gabirol), 

33,  280 
Kiddush,  1S8/.,  190,  198 
Kimhi,  217,  219,  220,  222  ff. 
— — ,  David,  22^  ff. 

,  Joseph,  225 

,  Moses,  225 

Kinah,  274,  276 

"  Kingly  Crown,"  the,  33 

Kinoth,  285 

Kitah    al-Amanat    wal-I'tika- 

bad,  256 

al-Khazari,  261 

Kol  Nidre,  200 

objected    to    by 

Babylonian  Geonim,  200 
Koran,  the,  255 


Laity,  their  part  m  synagogue 

worship,  147 
Lamentations,     Ntidra^h    on, 

76/. 
"Lamp  of  Light,  The,"  271 
Language    of     the    Talmuds, 

131 
Latin    inscription    found     in 

Adra,  30 
words  in  the  Mishnah, 

106 
Law,  the,  11,  19,  22,  58,  91 

,  Book  of  the,  90 

,  books  of,  often  used  in 

the  Liturgy,  145 

of  Man,  The,"  232 

,  oral,  Sj 

,  Reading  of  the,  155, 


182, 


192 


58 


Scroll  of  the,  156 
Scrolls  of  the,  182 
searching   out    of 


the. 


secrets  of  the,  223 

,  written  and  oral,  27 

Lekah  Dodi,  189/.,  289 
Leo  Hebraeus,  Magister,  266 
Leon  da  Modena,  295 

de  Bagnols,  266/. 

,  Moses  de,  238 

of  Mantua,  Judah  Messer, 

269 
"  Letter  on  Self -exculpation," 

264 
Levi,  R.,  67 

ben  Gerhon,  229,  263 

Levita,  Elias,  234 
Levites,  courses  of,  10 
Leviticus,  Midrash  on,  70  /. 
Lexicography,  Hebrew,  217 
Liber  de  causis,  266 
"  Light  of  the  Eyes,  The,"  295 
— —  of  the  Lord,  The,"  268 
l.iskath  ha-gazith,  153 
Litanies,  273 


INDEX 


323 


Literature  conditioned  by  his- 
torical events,  3 

of     the     Jews     wholly 

religious,  24 

Liturgical  prayers,  collections 

of,  149 

uses,  144  ff. 

worship  and  poetry,  272 

Liturgies  of  the  Church,  early, 

146 
Liturgy,    complexity    of    the, 

142,  144 
,  development  of  the,  144 

,  most  pronounced 

in  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies, 144 

,    early    information    re- 
garding the,  149 

enriched  by  Kabbalistic 

mysticism,  290 

,  fixed,  149 

,    historical    occurrences 

referred  to  in  the,  144 
important  for  Christians, 

142 
■ influenced  by  the  Geo- 

nim,  211 

■ ,  Jewish,  the,  141  ff. 

,  language  of  the,  224 

■ of  the  Temple,  151  ff. 

■ ,  origin  of  the,  151 

,  poems  in  the,  144 

product  of    many  cen- 


turies of  development,  148 
— ,  reform  of,  in  nineteenth 
century,  144 
— ,  Scriptural  character  of, 


145 


simple  in  its  beginnings. 


144 


sources  of  the,  149  ff. 

used  by  Jewish-Chris- 
tians of  the  first  century, 
142 

Love,  teaching  of,  in  the 
Kabbalah,  250 

Lots,  feast  of,  198 


Luma,  the,  218 
Luria,  Isaac,  232 
Lydda,  118 

,  school  at,  94 

Lydia,  kingdom  of,  4 


M 


Ma'amad,  148 
Ma'amaroth,  243 
Ma'arbiyyoth,  274 
Ma'areketh  ha-'Eluhoih,  246 
Ma'arib,  155,  1907. 
Macame,  286 
Maccabaean  power  a  deciding 

factor,  13 

rising,  the,  11  ff. 

Maccabees,  rise  of  the,  7 

Machir  ben  Abba  Mari,  79/. 

Machsor  Vitry,  150 

Machzor,  277 

Machuza,  123 

Magen  Aboth,  269 

Maggid,  62 

Mahalak,  225 

Maimonides,   34/.,    131,    135, 

136,    137,    150,   222/.,   230, 

231,   262,   263,   264/.,   268, 

286 
and     anti-Maimonists, 

228 

,  commentary  of,  84 

,  Creed  of,  156,  160,  288 

,  his  rationalism,  223 

on  the  Creation,  223 

on     the     Targum     of 

Onkelos,  52 

,  reaction  against,  267/. 

,  Thirteen  Articles  of,  231 

Makamat,  286 

Malmad  ha-Talmidim,  229 

Mani  II.,  122 

Manuscript,  complete,  of  T.B., 

83 
Manuscripts,    destruction   of, 
during  persecutions,  83 

Y  2 


324 


INDEX 


Manuscripts  of  the  Talmud,  83 
Mar  Samuel,  119 

Rab  Chanan,  209 

• Zutra,  125 

Maria,  queen  of  Spain,  32 
Martyrdom,  273 
Masora,  the,  215 
Masoret  ha-Masoret,  234 
Masoretic  scholars,  workof,  215 

text,  27 

Massacres  of  Jews  in  Spain,  32 
Masseket  Aziluth,  242 
Massektoth,  83,  98 
Matnitin,  248,  250 
Mattathias,  12 
Mechabberoth,  287 
Mechanical  use   of   words   in 

Scripture  texts,  76 
Mediaeval      literature,       the, 

209  _^. 
Median  empire,  4 
Meditation,  147 
"  Meditation     of     the     Soul, 

The,"  262 
Megilloth,  the  five,  74  j^^. 
Meir,  R.,  96,  106,  148 

ben  Isaac,  289 

,  Samuel  ben,  231 

Tarn,  ben,  232 

Mekilta,  60,  68/.,  70 

important      for     N.T. 

study,  69 

,  parable  from,  69 

Me/cor  Chayyim,  33,  259 
Mekubbalim,  235 
Memorial  of  the  departed,  183 
Memra,  the,  48/. 
Menahem,  122 

ben  Machir,  289 

ben  Saruk,  217,  279 

Mendelssohn,  Moses,  234 
Menelaus,  high-priest,  11 
Menorath  ha-Maor,  271 
Me' or  'Enayim,  295 
Merkabah,  237 

MeshuUam    ben    Kalonymus, 
289 


Meshummadim,  178 
Mesopotamia,  40 
Messer  Vidal,  264 
Messiah,    doctrine   of,   in   the 
Targums,  49/. 

,  the,  68 

,  woes  of  the,  76 

Messianic  Belief,  231 
Metatron,  237,  242,  250 
Metempsychosis,  doctrine  of, 

243 
Methurgeman,  43,  45 
Mibchar      ha-Peninim      (Von 

Gabirol),  33/. 
Middah,  68 
Midrash,  95,  214 

,  example  of,  61 

ha-Gadol,  80 

Haggadah,  60  ff. 

Halakah,  60  ff. 

ha-ne'elam,  248,  250 

Hashkem,  79 

in  the  O.T.,  59 

Koheleth,  75 

Konen,  240 

• ,   meaning   of  the  word, 


57 


Megillath  Esther,  77 

Mi'shle,  73/. 

,  new  form  of,  219 

Rcibbah,  65 

Ruth,  74/.,  76 

Shemuel,  72 

Shir  ha-Shirim  Rabbati, 


75  f- 


Tehilliw,,  72/. 

,  quotation  from,  73 

,  two  types  of,  60 

,  wTitten  and  unwritten, 

59 

Yonah,  74 

Midrashic  elements  in  Apo- 
cryphal and  Pseudepigra- 
phical  literature,  63 

—  in  Josephus,  63 

in  Philo,  63 


exegesis,  traditional,  219 


INDEX 


325 


Midrashic  historical  works,  39 
literature,    Aramaic    in 

the,  42 

tradition,  228 

Midrashim,  S7  ff->  95>  213 

,  classified,  64/. 

,  Tannaitic,  112 

"  Microcosm,"  262 

"  Middle  Commentaries,"  263 

Miklol,  226 

Mikya,  85 

Milchamdth  'Adonai,  266,  267 

Minchah,  155 

Minhag,  150 

Minhagim,  89,  144  j5^. 

Minim,  178 

Miphaloth  Elohim,  231 

Mis  hie  Shu'alim,  291 

Mishmaroth,  148    . 

Mishnah,  the,  82  ff.,  98  ff. 

,  compilation  of  the,  96 

,  contents  of  the,  107 

■ ,  early  form  of,  compiled 

by  Akiba,  95 

,  extract  from  the,  109/. 

■ ,  meaning    of   the   word, 


-,  six  "  Orders  "  of,  99  j^^. 

-,  style  of,  107 

-,  written  in  New  Hebrew, 


106 
Mishneh  Tor  ah,  35,  136,  137, 

150,  228 
Missa  Catechumenorum,  142 
Mtzmor,  161 
Modin,  12 
Mohammed,     daughters     of, 

mentioned    in    Palestinian 

Targum,  53 
Mohammedanism,  25/. 

,  Jews  under,  25/. 

Mohammedan       theologians, 

Moors,  Jews  under  the,  30 
Moreh  Nebukim,  35,  222 
Morning  Prayer,  central  ele- 
ments of,  187 


Morning  Service,  structure  of 

the,  155^. 
Moses  ben  Chasdai,  289 

ben  Enoch,  31 

ben  Jacob,  252 

ben    Jacob  ha-Shallach, 


281 


—  ben  Joshua,  267 

—  ben  Kalonymus,  289 

—  ben  Shem  Tob  de  Eeon, 
247 

—  ha-Darshan,  219 

—  ibn  Ezra,  262,  281  ff. 

—  ibn  Giktilla  of  Cordova, 
218 

—  Isserles,  R.,  137 

—  Narboni,  263 

—  of  Courcy,  R.,  136 
-,  oral  Law  traced  back  to. 


87 

"  Moses,  The  Sword  of, 
Mostegab,  288 
Mourning  customs,  201 
Musaph,  193  ff. 
Mutakallim,  255 
Mystic  lore,  236 

philosophy,  237 

Mystical       literature, 

.       Smion 


240 


the. 


ben 


Jochai  connected  with  the, 
power  of  the  letters  of 


the  Hebrew  alphabet,  239 
Mysticism,  Jewish,  240 

of  Nachmanides,  232 

Mythological  element  in  the 

Kabbalah,  237 


N 


Nabataeans,  the,  15 

Nabonidos,  4 

Nachman  bar  Jacob,  R.,  121 

,  Moses  ben,  232 

Nachmani,  120 


326 


INDEX 


Nachmanides,  232,  244 
Nagdela,  Samuel  ibn,  279 
Nagid,  279,  284 
Najara,  Israel,  290 
Name,  the  Holy,  163 
Narboni,  Moses,  264,  267 
Nasi,  20,  93 
Nathan  ha-Babli,  R.,  97 

■ ,  R-,  129 

Natronai,  150 
Nazarenes,  179 
Nechemiah,  R.,  67 
Nehardea,  118,  119,  125 

,  Academy  of,  22 

Nehemiah,  5 
Ne'ilah,  200 

Neoplatonic    doctrines,     260, 
262 

philosophy,  235,  240 

Neoplatonism,  33,  241 
Neo-pythagorean  philosophy, 

235 
Neres,  124 

New-Hebrew  poetry,  285 
New   month,    announcing    of 

the,  193 
Moon    festival   service, 

198 

Moons,  155 

Testament,  study  of,  69 

Year  festival  service,  198 

Year's  Day,  200 

Nicholas  de  Lyra,  230 
Nishmath,  191/. 
Nissim  ben  Moses,  229 
Nittai  of  Arbela,  93 
Non-sacrificial  elements  in  the 

Temple  worship,  151  ff. 
North  Africa,  Jewish  schools 

in,  217 
Numbers,  Midrash  on,  71/. 


Obadiah,  R.,  135 
"  Offering  of  Isaac,  The,"  269 
Olam  Kafon,  262 


Omar,  Caliph,  26 
Ommeyade  Caliphs  in  Spain, 

29 
Onias    and    Tobias,    conflict 

between  the  two  houses,  7 
Onkelos,  Targum  of,  44,  ^o  fj. 
Ophan,  274 
Ophanim,  250,  274 
'Or  'Adonai,  268 
Oral  Law,  87 

,  beginnings  of,'  88 

tradition,  82 

'Orchoth  Zaddikin,  270 

"  Orders "    of    the    Mishnah, 

99  ff. 
Oriental  Judaism,  96 
Origen,  117 
Orosius,  5 
'Otzar  ha-Kapod,  246 


Pagination  of  the  Talmud,  84 
Pain  and  suffering,  object  of, 

232 
"  Pairs,"  the,  93/. 
Palestine,  70 
• ,  Academies  of,  23 

visited     by     mediceval 

Jews,  293 

Palestinian  liturgical  use,  145 

Rite,  the,  150 

• Talmud,  the,  22,  82 

Targum,  the,  52  j^.,  86 

Papa,  124 

Parable,  69,  73,  75 

"  Paradise,"  special  meaning 

of,  95 
Parashah,  194 
Parchi  Esthori,  293 
Pardes,  250 

Parents  bless  the  children,  190 
Pargod,  241 
Parthians,  invasion  of  Syria 

by,  17 

Path  of  Faith,  The,"  269 
of  Light,  The,"  244 


INDEX 


327 


Pay  ye  tan,  272 
Penini,  Jedayah,  264 
Penitential  prayer,  a,  282 

prayers,  179/.,  199,  273 

Pentateuch,    commentary   on 

the,  244 
,    influence    of    language 

and  thought  on  the  T  jturgy, 

146 

,  lesson  from  the,  194 

,  Nachmanides'  commen- 
tary on,  232  /. 

readings,  154 

Pentecost,  feast  of,  196 

Perakim,  98 

Persecutions,    destruction    of 

manuscripts  during,  83 
Persia,  Jews  of,  248/. 
Persian  Empire,  downfall  of,  6 

rule,  5 

Persians       and       Egyptians, 

struggle  between,  5 
Pesach,  196 
Pesahim,    tractate,    fragment 

of,'  83 
Peshat,    58,    124,    214/.,    234, 

250      ' 

exegesis,  the,  219 

,  period  of  the,  216 

Peshim,  58 
Pesikia,  64,  74,  77/. 

de  Rah  Kahana,  64,  77 

Rahbati,  64,  78 

Pesiike  de  Zimra,  191 
Petachiah  of  Ratisbon,  293 
Petichah,  80 

Petitions  for  Grace,  179  ff. 
Pharisaic  party,  the,  14/. 

settled  in  Jabne,  20 

Phasael,  17 

Philip,  18 

Philo,  28,  229 

,   Midrashic  elements  in, 

63 
Philological       literature       of 

Spain,  218 
studies,  212 


Philology,  Hebrew,  217 
Philosophers,  Jewish,  270 
Philosophic  Judaism,  28 
Philosophy  and  Ethics,  254  j^'^. 
,   Aristotelian,    257,    263, 

268 

, ,  system  of,  223 

,  Hindu,  248 

,  mystic,  237 

,  Neoplatonic,  235,  240 

,  Neo-pythagorean,  235 

of  religion,  219 

Physics,  Aristotelian,  223 

"  Pilgrim  Festivals,"  196 

Pilpul,  228 

Pinchas,  R.,  97 

Pirke  'Aboth,  91,  157,  195,  225 

de  Rabbi  Eliezer,  79,  240 

Piyyut,  272 
,     meaning 

Midrash,  272 
Piyyutim,  144,  272  j^. 

-,  classes  of,  273/ 

in     the   Geonic 


of,     in     the 


period, 


273 


of  Ibn  Gabirol,  33 

Plato,  255 

Poetry,  219 

Poetry  and  liturgical  worship, 
272 

,  New-Hebrew,  285 

,  the  Mediaeval,  2jiff. 

Poets,  Spanish-Arabian  school 
of,  279 

Poland,  Jew^s  in,  36,  253 

Pompey,  15 

besieges  Jerusalem,  16 

Pontius  Pilate,  18 

Praise,  passages  of,  in  Morning 
Service,  156 

Prayer,  146 

,  a  penitential,  282 

and  sacrifices,  148 

,  assemblies  for,  on  fast- 
days,  1^2  ff. 

book,    commentary  on, 

150 


328 


INDEX 


Prayer  in  the  Early  Church 
extempore,  147 

,  leader  in,  147 

,  private,  180/. 

,  silent,  in  public  worship, 

147 

,  the  Lord's,  157/. 

Prayers,  collections  of  litur- 
gical, 149 

for  the  departed,  201  ff. 

of  the  synagogal  liturgy 

corresponded  with  the 
sacrifices,  151 

of      the      synagogue, 

national  in  character,  147 

originally  variable, 

147 
,  subject-matter  of 

fixed,  147 

originally  short,  147 

,  penitential,  179/.,  199, 


137 


273 

written  down,  149 

Predestination,  263 

"  Prepared  Table,  The,' 

"  Prester  John,"  292 

Priests,  courses  of,  10 

,  the  Blessing  of,  173 

Primal  elements,  239 

Prince  and  Dervish,  290 

of  the  Captivity,"  21 

Principles  of  exegesis,  216/. 

of  Faith,  the  Thirteen, 

156,  160 

Private  prayer,  a  technical 
term  for,  181 

Problem  of  evil,  the,  245/. 

Proems,  64,  80/. 

Profiat  Duran,  268 

Proper  Preface,  176 

Prophets,  Kimhi's  commen- 
tary on,  226 

,  reading  from  the,  192 

Proverbs,  commentary  on, 
225 


Psalms  for  each  day  of  the 

week,  159 
,    influence    of    language 

and  thought  on  the  Liturgy, 

146 
,     Kimhi's     commentary 

on,  226 

,  Midrash  on,  72/. 

often  used  in  the  Liturgy, 

145 

Pseudo-Philo,  112 

Ptolemy  IV.,  7 

Ptolemys  and  Seleucids,  con- 
flict between,  6 

Pumbeditha,  121,  125 

,   Academy  of,    22,    209, 

210 

Punning  rhyme,  282 

Purim,  198 


Q 


"  Questions  and  Answers,"  2! 


Midrash  on,  73/. 
Psalm  for  the  day,  156 


R 


Ra'aya  Mehemna,  248,  250 
"  Rab,"  22,  67,  70,  116,  119, 

210 

Abina,  126 

Joseph,  124 

Kaha.na,  125 

Raba  ben  Joseph  ben  Chawa, 

123 
RABaD,  262 
Rabba  Thospia,  125/. 
"  Rabbah,"  123 

ben  Nachmani,  123 

"  Rabban,"  116 
Rabbenu  Tam,  232 
"  Rabbi,"  116,  119 
Rabbinical  Bible  of  Chayim 

227 

formalism,  253 

Judaism,  256 

Kaddish,  186 


INDEX 


329 


Rabbinical  literature  planted 
in  the  Exilic  period,  7 

— —    passages    read    during 
Morning  Service,  158 
tradition,  215 


Rabina,  125,  126 

RaLBaG,  266/. 

Rambam,  232 

Ram's  horn,  200 

RaSHBa,  244 

Rashbam,  220/, 

Rashi,   36,   72,    133/.,   220/., 

228,  231 

,  commentary  of,  84 

Rationalism    of   Maimonides, 

223 
Raze  de-Razin,  248,  250 
Reading  of  the  Law,  the,  155, 

182,  192 
Reason,  the  basis  of  exegesis, 

216 
Regalim,  196 

"  Relation  of  Faith  to  Know- 
ledge, The,"  263 
Religion,  freedom  of,  among 

the  Jews,  24 
Religious    ideas,    growth   of, 

revealed    in    the    Liturgv, 

143 
ReMaK,  225 
Remez,  250 
Renegade  Jews,  12 

■ ,  religious,  170 

Resh  Gelutha,  21,  26 

Lakish,  117 

Reshith  Chokmah,  271 
Reshuth,  275 
Responsa,  29,  211  ff. 

Prudentium,  28 

Reuchlin,  253 

"  Revival   of  the   Science   of 

Religion,  The,"  260 
"  Rif,"  136 
RiKam,  224 
Rite,    Ashkenazic,    the,    145, 

150 
,  ,  where  used,  151 


Rite,  Babylonian,  the,  150 
— ■ — ,  French,  the,  150 

,  German,  the,  150 

,  Palestinian,  the,  150 

,  Sephardic,  the,  145,  150, 

151 

,  Spanish,  the,  281 

Rites,  two  fundamental,  150 

Rokeach,  241,  270 

Roman  power,  revolt  against, 

18 
Rome,    suzerainty    of,    over 

Palestine,  14 

,  war  with,  94 

Romulus  and  Remus,  myth  of, 

in  Midrash  Tehillim,  73 
Rosh  'Amanah,  231 
"  Royal  Crown,  The,"  280 
Ruach,  239 
Ruth,  Midrash  on,  74/. 


Saadya,  27/.,  150,  210,  211, 

217.  255#,  272 
,    Arabic    translation    of 

the  Scriptures  of,  256 
,     Hebrew     Prayer-book 

compiled  by,  257 

,  hymn  writer,  278 

Jewish    philosophy    of 


religion  created  by,  256 
— ,  principles  of  exegesis  of, 
216/. 
-,  successors  of,  217 


Sabbath,  9 

,  additional  Service  for, 

193  # 
Afternoon,   Service  for, 


194/- 


Conclusion  of,   Service 
for,  195/. 

—  Eve,  Service  for,  190/, 

—  hymn,  289 

— ,    Inauguration    of    the, 
188^. 


330 


INDEX 


Sabbath  lights,  i88 

meal,  189 

Morning    Service 


for. 


191  # 

rest,  the,  195 

,  Services  for  the,  iSy  ff. 

Sabbaths,  155 
Saba,  248,  250 
Sabora  {"  decision  "),  24 
Saboraim,  20 

,  period  of  the,  24 

"  Sacred  Letter,  The,"  232 
Sacrificial   system,    the,    148, 

151 
Sadduca^an  party,  the,  14/. 
Sadducees,  27,  178 
Safed,  252 
Salome,  14 
Samaritans,  178 
Sammael,  67,  250 
Samuel,  R.,  22 

ben  Chophni,  211 

ben  Meir,  R.,  220/. 

• ben  Nachman,  120 

,  books  of,  Midrash  on. 


ibn  Nagdela,  217,  218 
ibn  Tibbon,  R.,  222,  229 
Japhe,  R.,  138 


Sanctus,  the,  178 

Sanhedrin,  20,  90,  93,  97 

Sar  Shalom  (Jewish  sage),  52 

Satan,  67 

Saruk,  Israel,  252 

,  Menachem  ben,  279 

Scaurus,  15 

School  of  exegesis  founded  by 
Akiba,  213 

Scribes,  the,  11,  58,  89  j^^.,  215 

Scriptural  exegesis,  artificial 
type  of,  213 

Scripture,  exoteric  and  eso- 
teric sense  of,  223 

,  interpretation  of,  213 

text,  critical  study  of,  27 

Scriptures,  Arabic  translation 
of,  216,  256 


Scriptures,  authority  of,  216 

,  explanation  of  the,  153 

,  reading  of  the,  153 

,  the  foundation  of  Litur- 
gical structure,  145 
Scroll  of  the  Law,  the,  156 
Scrolls  of  the  Law,  182    . 
Second  Temple,  time  of  the,  42 
Secrets  of  the  Law,  223 
Sedarim,  83 
Seder,  68,  98 

'Olam  Rabbah,  296 

'Olam  Zuta,  296 

Sejev  ha-Galuy,  224 

Hukkah,  225 

ha-Shorashim,  226 

Zikkaron,  224 

Seleucids  and  Ptolemys,  con- 
flict between,  6 

Selichoth,  179/-,  273,  295 
Sephardi,  226 
Sephardic  Rite,  145,  150 

,  elaborate  character 

of.  145 
Sepharim  ha-Chitzonim,  iii 
Sepher  ha-Kabbalah,  294 

ha-Kuzari,  34 

ha-Middoih,  270 

ha-Temunah,  245 

ha-Yad,  136 

ha-Yashar,  246 

Hekkesh  ha-Yashar,  266 

Heiakoth,  248,  250 

Raziel,  238 

Yetzirah,     235,     2^8  ff., 

243,  246,  257 

Yosippon,  294 

■  Yuchasin,  295 

Sephiroth,  242 

,  the  ten,  239 

Sepphoris,  22,  97,  117,  122 

,  Academy  of,  20 

Septuagint,  the,  159 
Service  of  prayer  in  Temple 

worship,  152 
"  Service  of  the  word,"  the, 

142 


INDEX 


331 


Sha'ar  ha-Razim,  246 
Shacharith,  155 
Shalmanassar  I.,  40 
Shalsheleth  ha-Kahhalah,  295 
Shammai,  93 

,  school  of,  94,  107 

Shaprut,  Chasdai  ibn,  278 
She'eloth  u-Teshuboth,  28,  212 
Sheiltoth,  211 
Shekhinah,  49 
Sheliach  Zibbur,  174 
Shem  Job  Palquera,  266 
Shema',    the,    154,    155,    156, 

162^.,  274 
Shema'ya,  93 
Shemoneh    'Esreh,     146,    155, 

156,  164^.,  192,  194 /•'  197. 

199 

,  meaning  of,  173 

,  structure  of,  175/. 

Shemoth  Rabbah,  68/. 

,  parables  in,  69 

SA^oZ-belief,  201  /. 

Sherira  Gaon,  22,  83 

Shesheth,  R.,  113,  121 

Shevuoth,  196 

Shib'ata,  274 

"  Shields  of  the  Might}-,  The," 

295 
Shilhe,  121 
Shilo,  67 

Shilte  ha-Gibborim,  295 
Shimeon,  R.,  79 
Shim'on  ben  Shetach,  93 
Shir  as  him,  269 
Shi'ur  Komah,  238 
Shocher  iob,  72 
Shophar     sounded     on     New 

Year's  Day,  200 
Shulchan  'Aruk,  137 
Siddur,  150,  211 

,  compiled  by  Saadya,  257 

Sidra,  194 

Sifra,  60,  69,  70/.,  96 

debe  Rab,  70 

— —  de-Zenicutha,  248,  250  • 
,  quotation  from,  70 


150 
R., 


95 


Sifre,  60,  69,  71/. 

,  quotation  from,  71 

Silluk,  275 
Simcha  ben  Samuel, 
Simeon  ben   Lakish, 
87,  117/. 

ben  Nathanael, 

Simlai,  R.,  118 
Simon  II.,  R.,  96 

Duran,  263 

ben  Azzai,  95 

ben  Isaac  of  Worms,  289 

ben  Jochai,  96,  236,  247 

ben  Zemach  Duran,  269 

the  Just,  90/. 

the  Maccabaean,  12,  13 

Sin,  confession  of,  199 

"  Sinai,"  124 

Sionim,  276 

Sitre  Torah,  248,  250 

Sivan,  197 

Slanderers,  178 

Slavonic  Enoch,  the,  236 

Sod,  250 

Soko,  Antigonus  of,  92 

Solomon  al-Kabetz,  289 

ben  Abun,  289 

ben  Adret,  264 

ibn  Farissol,  284 

Isaaki,  R.,  133/. 

the  Levite,  190 

Song  of  Songs,   Midrash  on, 

75/. 
Songs  of  Israel,  the,  290 
Sopher,  90 

Sopherim,  58/.,  8gff. 
,     tractate,     information 

regarding    the    Liturgy   in, 

149 
Spain,     centre    of    Talmud  ic 

study,  31 
,  expulsion  of  Jews  from, 

230 

,  Jewish  schools  in,  217 

,  Jews  in,  29  j/. 

,  Ommeyade   Caliphs   in. 


29 


332 


INDEX 


Spain,    philological  literature 

of,  218 
Spanish-Arabian     school     of 

poets,  279 
Spanish  Rite,  the,  150,  281 
• schools,  217 

school  of  Jewish  poets, 

Arabic  influence  on,  288 

Speculative    element    in    the 

Kabbalah,  237 
Spinoza,  36,  267 
Spirit  of  God,  the,  239 
Spiritual  sacrifices,  158 
Strabo  quoted,  19 
"  Strong  Hand,"  The,  35 
"  Sublime  Faith,  The,"  262 
Succoth,  196 
Sufis,  the,  248 
Suffering     of     the     righteous 

explained  by  the  doctrine  of 

metempsychosis,  243 
Sunday  Eucharist,  142 
Sura,  119,  120,  124 
■ ,   Academy    of,    22,    23, 

210 
Sustenance,  Prayer  for,  156 
"  Sword  of  Moses,"  the,  240 
Symmachus  ben  Joseph,  97 
Synagogal  liturgy,   origin  of, 

151 

Synagogue  in  Alexandria,  174 

,    influence    of,    on    the 

Early  Church,  142 

poetry,  272 

prayers.  Biblical  char- 
acter of,  145 

originally  variable, 

147 

not  written, 

147 

,  the  Great,  91 

worship,  chief  elements 


of,  153 


developed      from 


Temple  worship,  151 
Syria,  39 
a  Roman  province,  16 


Tabernacles,  feast  of,  196 

Tabyomi,  125/. 

Tachanun,  the,  156,  179 

Tachanunim,  155,  lygff. 

Tachkemoni,  286 

Tadshe,  97,  240 

Tafsir  Kitah  al  Mahadi,  257 

Tajnis,  282,  288 

Tallith,  155 

Talmud,  authority  of  the, 
86/. 

,  Babylonian,  the,  23,  82, 

210 

,  ,  complete  manu- 
script of  the,  83 

,  -,   contents  of  the. 


the. 


132 

— ,  ■ — — ,   tractates  of 
127  ff. 

— ,  final  redactors  of  the,  24 
— ,  Jerusalem,  the,  78,  82 
— ,  lomar,  84/. 
— ,  manuscripts  of  the,  83 
meaning  of  the  word. 


82,  84/. 
opposed  by  the  Kabba- 

listic  literature,  236 

,  pagination  of  the,  84 

,  Palestinian,  the,  22,  82 

,  period  of  the,  19  ff. 

recited  from  memory,  83 

,  systematic  codification 

of  the,  135 

Tor  ah,  84 

,  uniqueness  of,  86 

Talmudic   commentaries   and 

compendiums,  i^^ff. 

literature,  the,  Siff. 

study,  Spain  the  centre 

of,  31 
Talmuds,  language  of  the,  131 

,  the,  11^  ff. 

Tanchuma,  64,  68,  71,  72 
bar  Abba,  122/. 

Yelammedenu,  69,  78 


INDEX 


333 


Tanna,  ii6 

Tannaim,    19,   83,    89,   9^ff-> 

107 
TsLnnkitic  Mi  dr  as  him,  112 
period,    ceremonial    in 


the,  152 


literature  of,  236 
the,  20  ff. 
abolished     in     the 


Targum 

synagogue,  45  /. 

,  Babylonian,  the,  51 

,  beginning  of  the,  44 

,  earliest  reference  to  the, 

.43 

Fragment,  the,  54 

• in  the  Dispersion,  46 

,  meaning  of  the  word,  43 

not     allowed     to     be 

written,  44 

of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel, 


54/. 


86 


of  Onkelos,  44,  50^5^. 
Palestinian,  the,  52  ff., 

,  special  rules  for  reading 

the,  45 
Targums,  the,  39  ff.,  145,  217 
• among    the     Jews    in 

Europe,  46 
,    doctrinal    teaching    of 

the,  46/. 

,  their  use,  45 

to  the  Hagiographa,  55  /. 

used     in     Babylonian 

synagogues,  46 

used  in  synagogue  wor- 
ship, 45 

,  value  of,  for  N.T.  study, 

56 
Tarphon,  R.,  95 
Tarshish,  the,  282 
Tekanoth,  89 
Temple,  daily  services  of  the, 

147 
,  destruction  of  the,  77 

gates,   shutting  of  the, 

200 


Temple  Liturgy,  the,  151  ff. 
,  non-sacrificial  elements 

in  the  worship  of,  151  ff. 

singers,  10 

worship,      service      of 

prayer  in  the,  152 
Ten  Commandments,  the,  154, 

156,  159/. 
Tribes,  place  of  exile  of, 

292 
Tend  Rahhanan,  112 
Tenu'ah,  288 
Tephillah,  173 
Tephillin,  155,  158,  191 
Tetragrammaton,  the,  246 
Tiberias,  97,  117 

,  Academy  of,  20,  23 

Theology,  Jewish,  255 
Thirteen  Articles  of  Maimon- 

ides,  231 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  40 
Tikkunim,  251 
Tobias    and    Onias,     conflict 

between  the  two  houses,  7 
Todros  Abulafia,  246 
Tokachah,  274 
Torah,  71,  72 

in  writing,  the,  87 

of  the  month,  the,  87 

Torath  ha- A  dam,  232 

Kohanim,  70 

Tosaphists,  231 
Tosaphoth,  84,  134,  231 
Tosephta,  89,  107,  108  ff.,  248, 

250 

,  extract  from  the,  109/. 

Tradition,  87 

,  authority  of,  217 

Trajan,    revolt    during    reign 

of,  21 
Transmigration,  249 
Travel-books,  293 

tales,  290/. 

"  Treasury    of    Glory,"    the, 

246 
Treatise      on      Ethics      (Ibn 

Gabirol),  33 


334 


INDEX 


"  Tree  of  Life,  The,"  268 
Triennial  Cycle,  the,  182 
Turim,  137 

U 

Unity  Hymn,  194 

of  God,  the,  195 

Usha,  97 

,  school  at,  95 


Varus,  18 

Vehu  Rachum,  156,  179,  195, 

273 
Vidal  Blasom,  Maestro,  267 
Vidas,  Ehjah  de,  271 
Vital  Chavim,  Samuel,  253 
Vulgate,  58 

W 


Yad  ha-chazakah,  35,  136 
Yalkut  ha-Makiri,  79 

Shimeoni,  79,  219 

Yanuka,  248,  251 

Yathe'd,  288 

Yellow  badge,  31 

Yepheh  Mar' eh,  138 

Yesod  Mora  (Ibn  Ezra),  34 

Yezdigerd  II.,  125 

Yeziratic  world,  the,  250 

Yigdal,    35,     155,     157,     160, 

190,  288 
Yislahach  Shimeka,  156,  161, 

162,  191 
Yoma,  tractate,  277 
Yorede  Mevkabah,  237,  238 
Yotzer,  156,  163 
Or,  274 


War  with  Rome,  94 
Washing  of  hands,  the,  157 
"  Watches,"  148 
"  Ways  of  Life,  The,"  271 
"  Ways     of     the     Righteous, 

The,"  270 
Wayyikra  Rabbah,  70/.,  77 
Weeks,  feast  of,  197 
We-Hizhir,  79 
"  Well  of  Jacob,  The,"  138 
Wisdom  of  Ben-Sira,  the,  164/. 
Woes  of  the  Messiah,  76 
Word  of  God,  instruction  in, 

part  of  worship,  145 
"  Words,  to  utter,"  a  technical 

term  for  private  prayer,  181 


Zabara,  Joseph,  292 
Zachuto,  Abraham,  295 
Zamora,  Isaac  Arama  of,  269 
Zarza,  229 
Ze'ira,  121 

Zekenim,  the  seventy-two,  20 
Zemach  David,  295 
Zemiroth,  155,  161/. 

Israel,  290 

Zionide,  284 

Zohar,  the,  234,  236,  237,  240, 
246,  247/7. 

Chadash,  250 

Zoharistic  system,  the,  249 
Zugoth,  89,  93/. 
Zulaih,  274 


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